Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology: Difference between revisions

From Embryology
mNo edit summary
 
(16 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Header}}
{{Header}}
{{Ref-Richards1931}}
{{Ref-Richards1931}}
<br>
<br>
{{Richards1931 TOC}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! Online Editor&nbsp;
! Online Editor&nbsp;
Line 9: Line 9:


|}
|}
<br>
{{Richards1931 TOC}}
{{Historic Disclaimer}}
{{Historic Disclaimer}}
=Outline of Comparative Embryology=
=Outline of Comparative Embryology=
Line 16: Line 19:
Aute Richards
Aute Richards


Professor  0 7,00/ugy
Professor  of Zoology
Univrr.r1' 0 0/c/ahomc:
 
University of Oklahoma


New York
New York
Line 26: Line 30:


==Table of Contents==
==Table of Contents==
 
{|
Part One General Embryology
! width=300px|Part One General Embryology
! width=300px|Part Two Embryological Problems
|-
|
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-1|Chapter I Historical Development of Embryology]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-1|Chapter I Historical Development of Embryology]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-2|Chapter II The Germ-Cell Cycle]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-2|Chapter II The Germ-Cell Cycle]]
Line 39: Line 46:
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-10|Chapter X Formation of the Mammalian Embryo]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-10|Chapter X Formation of the Mammalian Embryo]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-11|Chapter XI Egg and Embryonic Membranes]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 1-11|Chapter XI Egg and Embryonic Membranes]]
 
|
 
Part Two Embryological Problems
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-1|Chapter I The Origin And Development Of Germ Cells]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-1|Chapter I The Origin And Development Of Germ Cells]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-2|Chapter II Germ-Layer Theory]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-2|Chapter II Germ-Layer Theory]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-3|Chapter III The Recapitulation Theory]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-3|Chapter III The Recapitulation Theory]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-4|Chapter Iv Asexual Reproduction]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-4|Chapter IV Asexual Reproduction]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-5|Chapter V Parthenogenesis]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-5|Chapter V Parthenogenesis]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-6|Chapter VI Paedogenesis And Neoteny]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-6|Chapter VI Paedogenesis And Neoteny]]
Line 51: Line 56:
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-8|Chapter VIII The Determination Problem]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-8|Chapter VIII The Determination Problem]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-9|Chapter IX Ecological Control Of Invertebrate Larval Types]]
* [[Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology 2-9|Chapter IX Ecological Control Of Invertebrate Larval Types]]
|}


==Preface==
==Preface==
Line 85: Line 91:
A. R.
A. R.


==Part Two Embryological Problems==
{{Historic Disclaimer}}
 
==Chapter II Germ-Layer Theory==
 
It will be recalled that the old issue between preformation and epigenesis finally resulted in the overthrow of the cruder type of preforn1ation which held that development was simply an unfolding of parts
already existing in egg or sperm. As better understanding of the facts of
development was obtained it became clear that, although preformation
did not occur, there were definite signs of organization within the egg.
The developing organs could be traced farther and farther back until
it was evident that in general they came from what might be called
three plates or layers of tissue lying one over the other. These layers
give rise by various processes of folding, outpocketing, unequal growth,
etc., to the fundaments of the future organs. It was further obvious
that there is a great similarity in regard to this method of origins from
these layers in different kinds of embryos. These facts were known in
whole or in part to many of the early embryologists, including von
Baer (1828), and others, even back to the time of Wolff (1768). ()f
course the proper interpretation of cells and cell structure in the animal
kingdom had not as yet been made and it had proven impossible to
explain the origin of the layers in terms of any other lower units of
organization. It is not surprising, therefore, that these early embryologists should have looked upon the formation and subsequent development of the germ layers as the most critical processes of embryonic
life.
 
The germ-layer theory, which is distinctly an attack on the problem
of the organization of the embryo, has been one of the most fruitful of
all biological speculations. After the true nature of cells and their
methods of reproduction and growth came to be understood, the theory
acquired new significance and, in the hands of Oscar and Richard
Hertwig, had attained the status of a full-fledged theory of development
by the early eighties. Through a great variety of forms, blastulae and
gastrulae were identified, their methods of origin understood, and the
remarkably uniform character of all the processes involved in germlayer formation and in the laying down of the fundaments of the organs
was made out. Exceptions occur; indeed, some of them are of great
importance, but considered as a whole there is striking uniformity in
 
282
GERM-LAYER THEORY 283
 
the relationships of the layers to each other and to the subsequently
developing organs.
 
The essential point of the theory is that the three layers are homologous throughout the animal kingdom above the Porifera. In the
coelenterates, as in the gastrulae, there are present only ectoderm and
endoderm. Since the layers are homologous, the organs which arise
from them are also homologous wherever they are found.
 
In all metazoa there normally develops following the blastula, a
stage called the gastrula, of which the two component layers are known
as primary germ layers, the outer being the primary ectoderm (epiblast,
ectoblast), and the inner the primary endoderm (hypoblast or endoblast). The primary ectoderm in etenophores, turbellarians, rotifers,
annelids, and molluses contributes with the primary endoderm to the
formation of the middle germ layer, the mesoderm (mesoblast) giving
rise to the distinction of ectomesodcrm and cndomesoderm respectively.
From the outer layer also come: (a) the covering tissues with all their
modifications and appendages including hair, horns, nails, scales, skin,
glands, (b) the nervous system and sensory epithelium, and (c) in many
cases the stomodaeum and proctodacum (extreme anterior and posterior
regions of the alimentary canal).
 
The primary endoderm, in addition to cndomesoderm, produces the
lining of the midgut and of all the organs which are derived from it, as
pancreas, liver, etc. There is also exceptionally endoderm participation,
for example, in the formation of a part of the nervous system in some
coclentrates, but in some other cases, as in formation of blood cells
and endothelium of blood vessels, the evidence is not yet clear as to
whether it takes part.
 
The mesoderm may come, as already indicated, from the two primary
germ layers, but except as mentioned above, only the endoderm seems
to be involved in its production. There are several methods of mesoderm
formation. Isolated endoderm cells may push into a space between the
two layers at the same time with the secretion of a jelly-like substance,
thus giving rise to a filling-in layer known as mesenchyme from which
certain organs or parts of organs take their origin. In a second method
the typical epithelial character of the primary germ layers is preserved
and by outfoldings from the walls of the archenteron (primitive gut),
which becomes entirely disconnected from it, lateral coelomic pouches
are formed. This type of mesoderm is known as mesothelium. There
are also other processes by which coelomic walls may in special cases
be produced. The inner or splanchnic wall of the coelomic pouch unites
with the endoderm to form the splanchnopleure, and the outer or
somatic layer forms with the ectoderm the somatopleure. In some
284 GERM-LAYER THEORY
 
animals the middle germ layer is entirely mesenchymous; in others,
entirely mesothelial; and in many, both types are present. Either one
may develop first; in the echinoderms the mesenchyme arises before
the mesothelium and in the vertebrates after it. The mesoderm gives
rise to muscles, blood, skeletal and connective tissues, the excretory
organs (at least in part) and usually to the sexual organs, but not the
sex cells.
 
The surprising uniformity with which these relationships are held
throughout the higher groups of animals has been responsible for the
great importance of the germ-layer theory as outlined by the Hertwigs.
Probably no other theory or working hypothesis, with the exception of
Darwin’s own contributions, has been so fruitful as a stimulus for constructive zoological work. The germ-layer theory has to its credit much
of the most important embryological accomplishment. As a working
hypothesis it is of the greatest importance.
 
As an analysis of the problem of organization of the embryo, less
can be said for the germ-layer theory. Researches of later years with
careful technique have shown that the exceptions which formerly were
overlooked are in many cases difficult to harmonize with the theory
and, indeed, often operate decidedly to limit its usefulness.
 
Among the objections that have been cited are the following: inverse
relationships of the layers found in the sponges; the fact that the outer
layers of the (-estodes are in part or in toto thrown off leaving the covering
tissues doubtfully related to the eetoderm; the varying derivation
(depending upon the viewpoint of the observer) of the notochor(l
and mesenchymous connective cells in different chordate groups; the
composite nature of some organs, for example the nephridia, from
more than one germ layer; the identification of the mesoderm as the
4d cell, not a layer at all, in the individuals with spiral cleavage; and
especially the facts of budding, differentiation, and regeneration. Some
of these objections have proven difficult to answer although this fact
should not make us underestimate the value of this conception as a
whole. However, it is now known that there are many evidences of
organization appearing long before germ layers are formed. The promorphology of the ovum in the eggs with determinative cleavage and
the possibility of tracing out the cell lineage during cleavage and organ
formation in embryos of this class distinctly minimize the importance
of the germ layers. Back of this the organization of the chromosomes
and their part in shaping development as is now known from studies
of cytology and genetics again detract from the value of the theory.
 
We have now come to view the germ layers as representing a stage
in development just as we regard the blastula or gastrula as progressive
GERM-LAYER THEORY 285
 
steps. It is an essential stage in most cases through which the course
of development must pass, but in special cases adaptive modifications
have arisen. Homologies exist between blastomeres—sometimes, as
in the 4d cell and the “cross” of the annelids and molluscs, of very
striking character; they also exist between germ layers, between organs
and between organ systems. All are important, perhaps equally so.
But the germ layers are probably best regarded as temporary embryonic
organs which play their part and give rise to subsequent stages of development rather than as units of organization which determine the
future course of development.
 
 
==Chapter III The Recapitulation Theory==
 
The corner-stone of the science of embryology as it developed during
the last half of the nineteenth century was the recapitulation doctrine.
This doctrine is also called the biogenetic law, or in Haeckel’s term,
the fundamental law of biogenesis. To it was due much laborious and
painstaking research, and the interpretations based upon it have had
far-reaching significance. Yet during the last decade critical studies
have dethroned this doctrine so that as a “law” it is now of value only
historically. As a tendency, however, recapitulation is still a useful
conception for it unquestionably expresses a partial truth, a fact to
which is due the long-continued interest in the doctrine and the stimulating effect it has had upon embryological studies.
 
Recapltulation refers to the parallel which exists between the history
of the race, in its largest sense, and the development which an individual
organism belonging to that race goes through. “Ontogeny rccapitulates
phylogeny.” The life cycle of an individual is a brief summary of racial
history. The animal kingdom presents innumerable instances which
illustrate this principle. The development of the frog tadpole, through
stages showing successively external gills, hind legs, front legs appearing
later, and the disappearing tail and gills, closely parallels the taxonomic
series of legless apoda and the salamanders. This series begins with the
lower urodeles which have external gills and weak legs, then comes
Amphzuma with small posterior legs, the Salamandridae in which external gills are lost, the legs are about equally developed, and the tail
is about equal to the body in length, and finally the Anura which have
no gills or tail and the hind legs are the better developed. (fig. 190.)
 
The development of the decapod Crustacea, in which the larvae
pass through stages comparable to those characteristic of some other
orders of the Malacostraca (fig. 191), is an often-cited case to illustrate
the biogenetic law. Another illustration involves the ascidians (fig.
192) which superficially resemble shapeless jelly-like masses, and whose
relationships are therefore difficult to decipher. A study of their embryology revealed the fact that they pass through a tadpole stage with
dorsal nerve chord, notochord, etc., all recognizable as vertebrate char
acters, but when they settle down and become sessile these structures
286
THE RECAPITULATION THEORY 287
 
gradually undergo degeneration and the creature loses all recognizable
signs of its former organization. An analogous situation obtains in the
 
d 8
fiG. 190. Early stages in the development of a frog tadpole compared with adults of
Siren (e), Amphiuma. (f), Desmoonathus (0), and an adult frog (h).
 
Cirripedia or barnacles. Barnacles have heavy shells, are sessile, and in
general are quite unlike the ordinary Crustacea to which their developZ66 'l‘l'1l!2 RECAPITULAT ION THEORY
 
inent clearly shows them to be allied. A second suborder of the Cirripedia doubtless presents the most extreme case of modification to be
found in the animal kingdom. This is Rhizocephala to which the parasitic Sacculina belongs. (fig. 193.) During its larval stages Sacculina is
a free-swimming form having about the usual external features of a
young braiichiopod crustacean. It attaches itself to the abdomen of a
crab, sends root-like branches into the body by means of which it obtains
nourishment, and completes its development to the adult stage. The
 
F1G- 191 -\. \ young lobster at the time of the third molt (after Herrick), and Ii. An
adult A1’,[”37-'3 (after Verrill).
 
(~x., exopodite, en., endopodite.
 
adult is so degenerate that it has no crustacean characteristics but is
merely a tumor-like sac on the abdomen of the crab in which even the
usual internal organs are scarcely present, the body being chiefly filled
with the gonads and their products. Only its life cycle reveals its relation to the other Cirripedia. The anatomical relationships by means
of which its phylogenetic position is determined are made clear by a
study of its cmbryological development.
 
Vaguely foreshadowed by the writings of Meckel and others of the
period, the recapitulation principle is first directly hinted at in the
writings of von Baer. Indeed, by some von Baer’s laws have been conTHE RECAPITULATION THEORY 289
 
fused with the recapitulation theory. These laws are, however, Inore
properly regarded as alternative to certain phases of recapitulation.
They were formulated by Von Baer in 1828 as follows:
 
“1. The more general features of a large division of animals arise in
the embryo earlier than the special features.
 
“2. From the most general features of structure arise those that are
less general, and so on until the most specific features arise.
 
“3. The embryo of a definite species tends away from the specific
forms of other species, instead of passing through them.
 
 
In. 19.2 An adult mcidmn (\) ((}Illl)LlrUd \\lli| 1 lirxal {min of the same type (B)
( Uter Deluge and Huounrd )
 
“4. Fundamentally, therefore, the embryo of any higher species is
never like the lower species, but only its e1nbryo”—(Lillie).
 
It will be noted that these laws antedate the cell doctrine and the
publication of the “()rigin of Species,” and that the simultaneously
enunciated germ-layer theory represented the last word in emhryological
knowledge of the time in the matter of early structural organization.
The advances made possible by the cell doctrine resulted in the enunciation by Fritz Muller in 1863 of the recapitulation doctrine as such.
Haeckel developed the theory and applied it in his famous blasteagastrea hypothesis.
 
Haeckel’s hypothesis lays stress on the importance of the universal
occurrence in the embryology of animals of the single-celled egg, the
290 THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
 
blastula, and the gastrula, and supposes that the phylogenetic development has taken a similar course. The protozoa represent the first step
and are comparable to the egg stage in individual development. No
animal is known which exactly corresponds to the blastula or the
gastrula, although there are protozoan colonies quite like the former in
some respects and simple eoelenterates have features in common with
the latter. Haeckel, therefore, supposed that there must have been stages
corresponding to each of these forms which had now ceased to exist,
 
and to these hypothetical forms he gave the names “Blasted” and
“Gastrea.”
 
 
Fm. 193. A nauphus (A) and u (‘ypris larva (B) compared with an adult ((‘) Saeculma
carcmt. (After Deluge.)
 
Haeckel also pointed out the significance of certain characters as
indicating phylogenetic history whereas others are to be regarded as
embryological adaptations of importance to the individual organism,
but not to the race. Characters of the first class are spoken of as palingenetic; of the second, as cenogenetic. A chick embryo, for instance,
has a good many characters which recall fish or amphibian conditions,
but it could not exist in the environment where these forms dwell, and
is different in numbers of other characteristics including the important
one that it will develop not into a fish or amphibian, but a bird. It cannot, therefore, in its development represent with entire correctness the
ancestral forms. Some of its characters are those which adapt it to
development in a shell at a temperature of 37° C. and enable it to live
in the peculiarities of its own environment. These are new or ceno—
genetic characters. Other features, as the aortic arches, gill slits, brain
THE RECAPITULATION THEORY 291
 
vesicles, and others, are supposed to be of ancestral significance and
are, therefore, palingenetic.
 
A critical consideration of many cases which may be cited, however,
shows that the facts do not all easily fit into the biogenetic interpretation.
When one attempts to classify clear cases such as the shell tooth on the
one hand or the aortic arches on the other as adaptive or ancestral
little difliculty is experienced, but the problem of applying the same
classification to a doubtful ease becomes much more complex, and as a
rule the results cannot be certainly relied upon. Indeed, recognition of
a particular character as palingenetic or cenogenetic may be quite an
impossible task.
 
Other difficulties may be cited which require modification of the strict
biogenetic way of looking at the animal kingdom. For example, there
is a general tendency which becomes more marked the higher one goes
in the animal kingdom to shorten and condense the ancestral phases of
an organism’s development in favor of the specializations which relate
it to its own environment. This tendency, in addition to complete
changes of developmental conditions (for example, the long placental
life of mammals, or the abundance of yolk in bird eggs), may result in
the entire omission of certain stages (as in the case of embryos where
gills do not develop in connection with gill arches).
 
This abbreviation or contraction of development is called by some
writers tachygenesis. In the brief period of embryonic development,
if reeapitulation occurs even in the most sketchy fashion, an immense
contraction of stages must be thought to take place so that the necessary
abbreviation may be accomplished. To this shortening of the developmental time, or tachygenesis, there are two aspects, the actual quickening of the rate of development and the fusion and omission of certain
stages. The one aspect may occur without the other in special cases as
in the response of the developmental rate to rise in temperature, where
the rate is hastened without fusion or omission of stages.
 
Hcterochrony also presents an argument against the reeapitulation
doctrine, as was pointed out by Keibel, Mehnert, and others. By heterochrony is meant the disturbances, which now are known to be of quite
common occurrence, in the time of appearance of structures in a known
sequence of stages.
 
These modifications in the rates of development bring about results
which cannot be interpreted either as of phyletic or adaptive significance.
Stockard has lately pointed out the importance of the arrest of development, even over a small part of the germ ring, whereby various types
of monsters are produced. Evidently, here are structural modifications
not to be related to recapitulation. Furthermore, the normal develop292 THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
 
ment of the organ systems of the embryos of different classes does not
preserve the same synchrony as may be noted by comparing tables of
the development, let us say, of the chick and pig (Keibel, N ormentafeln).
In addition, there are extreme cases in which the actual order of development is the reverse of what would be demanded by recapitulation,
as, for example, in those cases in which the joints become rounded off
before movement is acquired. Another illustration is the formation of
the tongue and the teeth. There is no question that in the phylogenetic
series teeth made their appearance before tongues, but in the embryological development of mammals the teeth are much later developed
than the tongue. Ontogeny not only fails to recapitulate phylogeny
in this case, but completely misrepresents the facts.
 
In a recent discussion De Beer has summarized the possibilities of
variation which heterochrony offers in comparing the appearance of
structures in the individual with that in the ancestral forms. This
summary with no further elaboration is sufficient to make clear that
some of the possible variations not only do not fit in with the conception
of recapitulation but are actually opposed to it. The summary is as
follows 2*
 
“A character which is present or makes its appearance in the young
stage of an ancestral animal may in the ontogeny of a descendant
 
appear:
 
“A. In the young stage only, producing youthful adaptations or
caenogenesis,T not affecting phylogeny.
 
“B. In the young and adult stage, producing a substitution of the
new adult condition for the old, resulting in a progressive denation in the ontogeny of the descendant from that of the ancestor.
 
“C. In the adult, by a relative retardation of the development of
the bodily structures as compared with the reproductive organs,
resulting in paedogenesis and neoteny.
 
“A character which is present in the young and adult stage of an
ancestral animal may in the ontogeny of a descendant appear:
 
“D. In the young stage only, resulting in the reduction of the
character to a vestige.
 
“A character which is present or makes its appearance in the adult
stage of an ancestor may in the ontogeny of a descendant appear:
 
“E. In the adult stage, resulting in those differences which distinguish individuals, varieties, and races: adult bariation.
 
* Reprinted from De Beer's “Embryology and Evolution,” by permission of Oxford
University Press.
’{ The same as cenogenesis.
THE RECAPITULATION THEORY 293
 
“F. In the late adult stage, 1'.e., too late, resulting in the reduction
of the character to a vestige by retardation.
 
“G. In the same stage, which is no longer adult, the new adult
stage being relatively delayed, resulting in overstepping the
previous ontogenies or hypermorphosis.
 
“H. In the young stage, producing precocious appearance of the
ancestral character and acceleration.
 
“Cases B and C which produce phylogenetic efiects by introducing
youthful characters into the line of adults may be combined under the
term paedonzorphosis. Cases E, G, and H which produce phylogenetic
eliects by modifying characters which were already present in the line
of adults may conveniently be included under the term geront0morphos2's.”
 
In Inany forms the problem is further complicated by the prolongation of certain stages while internal processes are going on. If the
gradual internal development of a caterpillar were accompanied by
gradual conversion of the biting type of mouth parts to the sucking
type, the insect would starve, for during the transition the mouth parts
would be adapted to neither the larval nor the adult method of nutrition. By the prolongation of the biting stage until the internal parts
are ready for the metamorphosis, the animal’s relation to its surroundings are unchanged until the internal conditions are right when a sudden
metamorphosis brings about the necessary adjustment to a new environment without loss to the insect. These facts are not in keeping
with the biogenetic law as usually interpreted.
 
Experimental embryology and genetics have not been without their
bearing upon the doctrine of recapitulation. It is now possible to show
that external factors reacting with the internal, inherited constitution
of the organism can produce such effects upon the oflspring that its
entire ontogeny including the adult is modified. As stated elsewhere,
Stockard has shown, for example, that developmental arrests will
produce many types of modifications in Fundulus, including two heads,
trunks, or even two individuals where only one would have otherwise
been formed, and conversely that the age-old tendency of the egg to
produce two eyes on the fishes’ head can be changed by the simple
addition of a little magnesium chloride. The internal, inherited control
of development is thus capable of modification. And Muller has shown
that by exposure to X-rays the developing Drosophzla can be induced
to react in such a manner that entirely new mutations, that is, selfperpetuating strains, can be produced, even at will. Thus is phylogeny
deceived by ontogeny’. For these reacting ontogenies have produced
an entirely new series of adults which can undoubtedly become an294 THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
 
cestral to others later to appear. Now phylogeny means to most thinkers
just a series of adult forms having racial significance. Hence it would
appear that such experiments as that of Muller have brought us face
to face with an exact reversal of the usual causal role attributed to
phylogeny, for here phylogeny is the direct result of ontogenetic modification and certainly not the controlling cause of it, as it is usually
considered to be by the adherents of recapitulation.
 
From the criticisms which have been given the student can understand why the so-called “fundamental law of biogenesis” has passed
from the high position of a natural law, and is little more than a general
tendency. It is a tendency, furthermore, which is more valuable in
retrospect than as a means of prediction. And since prediction upon the
basis of known facts and postulates is the goal of science and the fundamental test of a “natural law,” this doctrine does not measure up to
scientific expectation and cannot be regarded as a law.
 
Yet the partial truths which are involved are of sufficient value in
view of the widespread occurrence of the tendency represented to
warrant a revaluation of the essential idea of the doctrine. We find an
attempt of this kind expressed some years ago by Lillie in his work on
the embryology of the chick. His views appear to go far in the direction
of harmonizing the useful parts of recapitulation and at the same time
to avoid some of the contradictions which have been mentioned. He
conceived that the entire life history of an organism is as necessary for
the definition of species as any other character. Ontogenies are inherited
also and are subjected to variation with resulting modification. Ontogenies of closely related species are more nearly alike than those less
related. In the evolution of a species those stages of ontogeny latest to
have arisen (those found in the adult) are the ones most easily to be
modified and hence the embryo as a rule retains the ancestral resemblances the longest. This is not because these have phylogenetic, that
is palingenetic, significance, but because the embryo is less susceptible
to outside influences and therefore its characters are less the material
upon which selection may operate. Embryonic resemblances being more
conservative and actually older are nearer the ancestral condition.
They are statements of historical facts rather than causes of recapitulation. But because of the chronological sequence of stages in a great
many observed cases, the older recapitulationists came to regard each
stage as strictly causal to the succeeding ones and thus to look upon
the tendency exhibited as a law of nature.
 
 
==Chapter Iv Asexual Reproduction==
 
Asexual reproduction occurs in a great many plants and in many
animal groups. Among the invertebrate phyla it is lacking only in the
arthropods, molluscs, and nematodes of the more important groups;
while among the chordates, the tunicates present many illustrations of
this mode of reproduction. It should also be noted in passing that even
in certain mammals a process of budding in the embryonic state occurs.
This matter is discussed at length in the chapter on polyembryony
where it is shown that the blastocyst of the armadillo regularly buds
to produce four embryos. This gives asexual reproduction a place even
among the highest groups.
 
In spite of the fact that this method of reproduction manifests itself
in many different forms, it is essentially a very simple process. It occurs
in organisms (or in portions of organisms) which have retained to a
considerable extent their embryonic, undifferentiated character, and is
really a mass division, due especially to the cells of some particular area
undergoing a proliferation which presently results in the constriction
and cutting ofi” of a greater or lesser portion of the animal. If the portions
are approximately equal the process is spoken of as fission; if unequal,
as budding. These, with sporulation, are the common forms of asexual
reproduction, but each shows many variants in the animals in which
it occurs.
 
Sexual reproduction, involving the participation of two individuals,
is known as amphigony; asexual, since only a single individual is necessary, is monogony. In the former, germ cells or their equivalents are
produced; in the latter, there are no special cells employed for the purpose. The alternation of a sexual with an asexual generation is called
metagenesis. The alternation of a biparental sexual generation, that is,
a case of amphigony, with a uniparental, a parthenogenetic, generation
is heterogony. Sexual reproduction was further called gamocytogony
or cytogony by Hartman, and asexual, agamocytogony (also agamogony).
 
fission is the division of an organism into two parts which are approximately equal and into whose formation very little new material has
gone. The parent organism is lost in the production of the daughters,
 
which therefore can have no living ancestors, and can undergo only
295
296 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
what may be termed accidental death. It occurs when growth has taken
place in excess of the needs of the individual. Contrasted to the condition in sexual reproduction, the new organism is at once provided
with at least part of the organs which characterize the adult, and differentiation is always well advanced, considering that the organism is
seldom high in the scale of animal life. Two categories were distinguished
by F. von Wagner for organisms undergoing fission: in the one, paratomy,
a special zone, in which the constriction will occur, is prepared before
fission begins; in the other, architomy, no preparation is made, constriction taking place more primitively with little bodily reorganization. It
should be noted that both of these categories may apply to either longitudinal or cross fission. Under the general head of fission may also be
placed those cases of fragmentation, such as occur in oligochaetes and
starfish, due to external influences, which may, if conditions are suitable,
develop into mature individuals. These cases are also spoken of as
autotomy, and sometimes as augmentation.
 
Budding, although not much more complex as a process than fission,
is productive of much more complicated organisms and life cycles. It
often is the means by which colonies are formed, and results in marked
polymorphism with some of the individuals of the colony being specialized for nutritive and vegetative purposes and others for reproduction.
Commonly where a considerable degree of specialization follows the
budding processes the life cycle includes a sexual as well as an asexual
phase and we have alternation of generations. A bud is a small portion
of the parent organism which has begun to grow actively and to proliferate and from which will be derived a new individual having the full
degree of differentiation characteristic of the species. There are buds
in some triploblastic animals which involve only one of the germ layers,
whereas in other animals the buds may include more than one layer.
Furthermore budding may occur in embryonic, larval, or mature
animals. Abundant illustrations of all these cases may be cited.
 
There are several types of budding. The most familiar are the external
buds such as occur in Hydra for example in which a small portion of
the parental tissue grows and constricts off to become a new, small
hydra. In some of the hydroids, however, the separation is incomplete
and the new individual remains as a permanent bud. The so-called “free
buds” of certain forms are also of the external type. As buds they break
off and become for a time at least free swimming. A second type includes
the internal buds among which are the gemmulae of sponges, the statoblasts of the bryozoa, the germ balls of trematodes and others. A group
of proliferating cells becomes isolated within the mother organism and
in time results in a new organism. A third type involves the formation
OCCURRENCE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 297
 
of a stolen or a “runner” from which numerous buds arise. This might
seem to be really a kind of external budding but it is sufficiently distinct
from the usual cases of this kind to warrant special mention. finally a
fourth series of processes should be included under budding, although
they are often overlooked; they are the processes known as frustulation
and laceration in which small fragments separate off from the parent
organism, when unfavorable conditions arise, and form new individuals.
 
Closely related to asexual reproduction and of much significance to
the comparative embryologist are the phenomena of regeneration.
Morphogenic processes are involved in the reorganization of portions
of the old individuals to produce new ones which do not greatly differ
from the preceding. These processes involve the regeneration of the
organism or of portions of it. The student of comparative embryology
should give careful thought to these processes, for in them are manifested
fundamental capacities and characteristics of living protoplasm. Indeed
some of these processes take us far into the innate organization and
give an insight into the nature of living stuff which the Inorc usual
studies fail to offer.
 
The formation of colonies is closely correlated with the occurrence
of asexual reproduction. Colony formation occurs in certain phyla in a
striking manner, and it is in these very phyla that asexual reproduction
is a dominant method. It may be taken as a general rule (not, however,
without exception), that whenever individuals are found organized into
colonies, either asexual reproduction, or polyembryony, or parthenogenesis will be found to occur in the same groups. The simple sexual
mode of reproduction seems not usually adequate to produce enough
individuals to be associated together in a permanent colony, and one of
those three accessory modes must be depended upon for the increased
task.
 
OCCURRENCE or AsEx}JAL REPRODUCTION
 
The first examples of asexual reproduction to be found in the animal
kingdom are in the protozoa, but the process here is one of single cells
and perhaps is thus somewhat outside the general problems of embryology. We may begin our study therefore with the Porifera.
 
Porzfera. In the phylum Porifera, asexual reproduction predominates;
here are to be found fission, budding, formation of free buds, and of
gemmulae. Since most sponges exist as colonies it is easy to see how the
dividing processes have lacked completion resulting in a degree of union
that is more or less extensive. Asexual reproduction commonly leads to
formation of colonies rather than to independence of organisms. But
budding and fission are shown to advantage in Leucosolenia. Some of
298 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
the individuals indicate fission as their mode of reproduction for the
products are equal in size although they remain attached at the basal
end. However, the presence of small immature individuals on certain
 
 
Fm 194 Budding and fission in Leucosolema blanca. (From Korsehelt and Heider)
 
specimens as well as the mode of colonial formation shows that budding
is often the actual method of their origin. When fission does occur it
begins as a split at the osculum and progresses toward the base. When
 
 
fiG. 195. A, Budding in Leucosolema botryozdes B, A bud which has become free and
attached to an algal filament. (From Korschelt and Heider, after Vasseur.)
 
it is not complete the beginning of a colony is seen and these colonies
 
often become quite complex.
In another species of Leucosolenia (botrymdes), Vasseur long ago
THE PORI FERA 299
 
found free bud formation. The buds form from an indifferent group of
cells, grow irregularly from the parent individual, undergo differentiation to a considerable extent, and at length break off, the ruptured end
forming the osculum of the new little sponge; they then settle down to
produce young sponges.
 
The sponges show what is perhaps their highest degree of asexual
reproductive activity in the formation of gemmulae, seen to best advantage in the Hexactinellidae. They are derived from parenchymal
cells which have wandered into the mesoglea and become separated
from their original layers. Aggregates of these “archeocytes” (also
called “sorites” by some) take on an oval or rounded shape, become
 
 
I‘it. 106 (:(‘lllI‘n1ll( forination in Eph;/dalm blrmbmata (From Korschelt and Heider.
Liter Evans )
 
A, an early stage showing the aggregation of the ‘ germ" cells (g) from those which
make up the covering membrane (m) B, the cutieular membrane (c) is beginning to form
from the outer membrane
 
surrounded by a special membrane and thus make up a gemmulc.
During conditions which are not favorable, this structure, which is
really an internal bud with a protective covering, tides over the organism
until a more suitable time. Thus this form of reproduction is a device
which enables these sponges to adapt themselves to changing environments. The parental tissue degenerates and dies after the gemmules are
formed. When the gemmules begin to grow, the cells multiply rapidly,
those at the surface arrange themselves in a layer, and from the gemmules a larva issues which is strikingly similar to the sexually produced
young in form, structure, and ciliation.
 
Division among sponges is often accidental so far as the organism is
concerned, and the animals offer opportunity for experimental fragmentation as well as normal. H. V. Wilson’s work and that of J. S.
300 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
Huxley give illustrations of the extent to which sponges may be dismembered (in these cases by being squeezed through bolting cloth) and
subsequent regeneration serve to produce new sponges. Often cell
masses come together, fuse, and grow into a new individual from which
a colony is formed. This is called concrescence and may also occur
between larvae as they creep about on the bottom.
 
Coelenterata. By the eoelenterates many developmental experiments
along the lines of asexual reproduction seem to have been tried as well
as those which have already been shown for the various types of embryos,
cleavage patterns, and methods of gastrulation. Nearly all types of
asexual reproduction are exhibited somewhere in the phylum. In addi
 
Fm. 197. Trunsversc fission in Protohydra. (From Korschclt and Heider. ufter Aders.)
 
tion there is often manifested an extreme polymorphism in the forms
which are thus produced, and the details of the manner of their production especially where a compound type of budding is involved are
often extremely complicated. Mention here can be made of only a few
cases which constitute a very meager outline indeed. fission, both
transverse and longitudinal, budding both larval and adult, and colony
formation by the production of permanent buds, metagenesis, stolen
formation, fragmentation, frustulation, laceration, and the related,
although in its results opposing, process of concrescence, occur in this
group.
 
The Hydrozoa exhibit only a few types of asexual reproduction. Transverse fission occurs in Protohydra, according to Aders, and consists in
THE HYDROZOA 301
 
the simple constriction of the animal around the region of its greatest
diameter. The constriction cuts the animal into a proximal and a distal
portion. The one develops a new base, the other a new oral region. A
similar type of division may occur in Hydra; although undoubtedly very
rare, this was one of the earliest cases to be described (Trembly, 1744;
see also Koelitz, 1908). It is of essentially the same character as in
Protohydra, the chief points of difference between the two being in the
simpler structure and the lack of tentacles on the part of the latter.
Longitudinal fission has been described for Polypodium only among
hydrozoa.
 
Budding by larval as well as by adult hydroids is not uncommon. An
example of budding in the larval condition occurs in Gonioncmus and in
Ilaleremita as described by Schaudinn, Perkins, and others; the details
of the life cycle in these forms have been lately worked out by Joseph.
The egg hatches into a tiny planula larva. It develops a mouth and
creeps about actively while feeding in Haleremita, although the planula
of Gonionemus is sessile. On the sides of these larvae protuberances
appear which grow into buds that gradually elongate to become like
the planula, then constriet at their bases, and at length separate. The
descriptions of the processes differ greatly in detail as described by the
different investigators. For example, from one to six buds have been
reported by the various students, according to Joseph, near the base of
the larva, although Perkins found them about the middle rather than
the base. In some cases the endoderm of the bud is said to be solid, in
others to contain a cavity derived from the gastrovaseular cavity of the
mother larva. There are also other differences in the details as given,
some of which are doubtless to be attributed to the fact that both
European and American forms have been used by the investigators.
Lateral buds also have been described as occurring on Microhydra,
where they may form tiny colonies of three or four polyps.
 
Among adult hydrozoans budding occurs in both polyps and medusae.
In Hydra and the colonial hydroids it is of such common occurrence
that mere reference to it is suflicient. The bud of Hydra consists of a
protuberance which grows, develops tentacles, a hypostone, and at
length a mouth, after which it is ready for separation from the parent.
Both layers of the body wall participate in the formation of the bud,
and the gastrevascular cavity is continuous between parent and bud
until the time of complete constriction of the latter. Budding is much
more common than sexual reproduction. In hydroids the process is
essentially the same except that it is usually incomplete, the bud remaining in connection _with the parent stalk; in this manner a colony is
formed. ’
302 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
A special case of hydroid budding is that which gives rise to the
medusa which is morphologically the equivalent of a bud from a polyp.
There are cases, to be sure, where the ontogeny is so abridged that the
polyp stage is extremely rudimentary or even entirely lacking, unless
the planula be regarded as representing it, and the egg develops continuously into the medusa. But in general the medusoid generation is
produced by budding from the hydroid generation or the polyp. The
main stalk, or hydrocaulus, has attached to it in Obelia, modified
hydranths, called gonangia, which bud to produce medusae. In Obelia
these become detached to swim freely. In the Narcomedusae a proliferating stolon buds off medusae which may remain in clusters or may
separate off completely. In the siphonophore, Halistemma, the planula
develops an ectodermal thickening at the aboral pole which develops
into the pneumatophore or float. Part of the planula becomes the
eoenosarcal axis from which spring buds which become several different
kinds of individuals. Those near the float are bell-shaped medusae,
through whose efforts the colony is enabled to swim. Next come a series
of covering scales which seem to be retrogressed medusae; they are protective in function. At various places along the coenosarc are feeding
tubes in general similar to a hydranth. The tentacles and feelers also
are probably to be looked upon as hydranths. finally there are the
reproductive individuals which resemble certain types of medusae.
 
It will be seen from a consideration of all these cases that budding in
the hydrozoa directly results in the formation of colonies. All hydroids
which bud form colonies. Usually the planula develops directly into
the first hydranth and the colony is formed by the subsequent branching
and budding. This brings about in all except the simplest cases a very
considerable degree of polymorphism. There are defensive and sensory
individuals and in these the cnidoblasts are well developed. The gonanth
or gonangium has for its purpose the function of reproduction, and
various modifications of gonangia are to be found throughout the group.
Medusae which are free swimming show a greater degree of differentiation than any of the other types of individuals produced in a hydroid
colony. There are, however, numbers of medusa forms in which the
development is incomplete, and some of them are quite simple in
structure. As an accompaniment to the more complex polymorphism
which we find in these colonies metagenesis, the alternation of generations, is perhaps shown here to a degree of completeness that scarcely
exists elsewhere in the animal kingdom. The sexual functions are transferred to certain individuals while others specialize along the lines of
feeding and protecting the colony. Hydroid colonies not uncommonly
reproduce by another asexual method, namely stolonization. From the
THE HYDROZOA 303
 
hydrorhiza of the original polyp cylindrical projections grow out which
elongate, creep about on the bottom and may branch or even anastomose. These are stolons or runners upon which new hydranth buds
appear to produce new individuals. Bougainvillia and Clavularia both
serve as illustrations of colonies which grow by stolon formation.
 
In the second class of coelenterates, the Anthozoa, transverse fission
occasionally occurs in young animals which have not yet developed sex
organs. In Fungia as described by Bourne, the development of the larva
at a certain stage results in the separation of its distal part and after a
complicated series of processes two individuals are produced. Longitudinal fission is common among the Anthozoa. It is a slow process
beginning at the oral pole in some cases, although in Actinia it may take
place simultaneously from the aboral as well. In the adult Sagartia and
in Paranemonia a constriction begins at the pedal disc and passes in the
course of twenty-four hours to the oral region. In some others it is much
more rapid. Furthermore the constriction of one individual to produce
several at the same time may take place. In this case the resulting individuals will be of varying size, and it has been observed that one
division may not even be completed before a new one begins. Strange
complications thus arise in which the individuals may have several
mouths or several systerrs of septa at the same time owing to this
multiple fission. In the Anthozoa irregular longitudinal fission sometimes
gives the appearance of budding. True budding, however, is rarely met
with in the sea anemones. In the alcyonarians, however, much-branched
colonies are formed by budding and the individuals undergo modification and even produce a very considerable polymorphism. The Zoantharia likewise owe their extremely complicated type of development
to both fission and budding. In both these latter groups stolon formation
and subsequent budding are commonly observed.
 
One of the most striking forms of asexual reproduction is that manifested by the scyphozoa in the process of strobilization. This has already
been described in the chapter on “Types of Invertebrate Larvae.” The
planula develops into a hydranth-like form called the scyphistoma. By
a series of divisions which may be repeated perhaps a dozen times there
are constricted off from the scyphistoma, ephyra larvae of which there
may be one or several. If there is only a single ephyra strobilization is
said to be monodiscal, if several are produced it is polydiscal. The
question arises as to the nature of these divisions. The first ephyra is
commonly said to be formed by terminal budding and it would seem
that if the successive ones are produced only slowly they likewise are
terminal buds. However, in certain well-fed scyphistomae the process
of strobilization takes place so rapidly that the lower individuals are
304 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
already indicated by constrictions before the upper ones have progressed
to any considerable degree of independence. It would seem that the
distinction between terminal budding and transverse fission in this
case is a difligult one to draw. The scyphistoma also for a considerable
part of the year produces other scyphistomae by lateral budding in a
manner similar to that in Hydra. All at length, however, undergo strobili—
zation and produce ephyrae which gradually develop into adult jellyfish.
In certain scyphozoans another type of asexual reproduction occurs in
the formation of stolons from the original hydranth. They grow out
from its base but remain in connection with it and their buds form a
colony.
 
Before leaving the coelenterates the attention should be called to the
other methods of asexual reproduction already discussed, namely,
fragmentation or laceration and frustulation. In the actinians laceration
is rather frequently seen, especially when the conditions of the water
become unfavorable. A part of the basal rim begins to spread out, the
ectoderm develops quite profusely and endodermal portions grow out
into this new area. This then separates from the main body owing to
the contractions of the latter and from the pieces so produced new
anemones may at length regenerate, although the ability to do so is
dependent upon the number of septa present. Frustulation occurs in
the hydroids. Occasionally a small bud-like branch is observed to constrict off from the parent colony, to settle down on the bottom in which
condition it is called the frustulum, to grow and to produce a hydranth.
In hydranths also a process somewhat similar to laceration has been
observed, although in this case it is spoken of as fragmentation, for a
basal portion of the polyp is cut off and may develop into a young polyp.
 
A final question in connection with the coelenterates naturally arises
as to which condition is the more primitive. There are three possibilities:
one, that budding is the primitive type of asexual reproduction; two,
that fission is primitive; and three, that both arose independently of
each other. There have been interesting discussions of this question
and transitions between them have been pointed out. It need only be
said here that the evidence is not conclusive for either view.
 
Platyhelminthes. In the phylum Platyhelminthes the dominant type
of asexual reproduction is fission, although there are also causes of
budding. It is most common among the Turbellaria, although the polyclads have not been shown to reproduce asexually. Undoubtedly the
phenomenon of asexual reproduction in this division of the animal
kingdom is closely concerned with the ability which all members of the
phylum have for extensive regeneration. In its simplest form, as for
example, in the triclads, Planaria abissima and P. alpina, the reproducPLATYHELMINTHES 305
 
tion really consists in the separating of the animal by transverse fission
into two portions each of which proceeds to regenerate the missing head
or tail. In Planaria all the species described show that regeneration may
take place at various levels proceeding from the anterior to the posterior.
An area of regenerating tissue
appears which enlarges and then
differentiates. Sometimes a second
fission makes its appearance before
the complete regeneration following
the first, and indeed there are recorded cases of several divisions with
the appropriate organs already developing before the first is completed.
 
Among the rhabdocoels fission is
an even more general phenomenon.
The small fresh-water M zcrostoma
reproduces mainly by fission. Commonly this process occurs before the
young have developed sex organs in
this form and in Stentostoma, and the
divisions may take place in such rapid
succession that chains of individuals
incompletely divided are the result.
Division takes place by paratomy
very slowly, that is, a zone of division
is prepared and the organs of the new
portion of the animal are already developed to a considerable extent
when constriction occurs. If the constrictions follow each other more
rapidly they come under the category
of architomy, no special region being A
prepared in advance. The distinction pm 195
 
S\l(‘('(“§‘\l\(‘ lI‘f'lH§V€l'EaC fis
betwcon pal-altolny and 3'1-chit/Oxny sions 111 (A) Stuwstmnum SM-boldi, and
 
. (B) '11 trrnslomum lmcarr (From Kormay perhaps be made clear by Saylng schelt and Holder after v Grofi )
 
that the regeneration Of the new Pharvnx is shown for each single inorgans precedes the actual fission in dividual, and the dn 131 111 planes of the
 
_ different ranks are numbered
paratomy, no great change in the
 
organization of the animal taking place at the exact moment of division. On the other hand, in architomy, regeneration and subsequent
reorganization follow the constriction.
306 ASEXU AL REPRODUCTION
 
In general, asexual reproduction in the trematodes is rare and certainly
never occurs in any individuals which have a complete set of sex organs.
The situation with regard to the germ balls which produce the rediae
has already been referred to in connection with the chapter on in
vertebrate larvae and also that on polyembryony. It is still looked upon
as an open question as to whether parthenogenesis or asexual reproduction is the method by which the germ ball that forms the new rediae
is produced. It has been pointed out that originally they
were regarded as asexually produced, more recently as
developed in parthenogcnie ova, and finally that the
cytological study of these supposed ova has not yet
shown evidence of a reduction division such as would
be necessary to establish surely the fact of their parthenogenic nature. If we are to regard them as asexually
produced then this type becomes of much more widespread occurrence among the trematodes than is usually
considered.
 
Among the cestodes there are two aspects to the
question of asexual reproduction. One has to do with the
formation of the proglottids from the scolex, the other
with multiplication of the eysticercus. The first of these
involves a decision as to the fundamental nature of the
proglottids. Is the tapeworm to be looked upon as a
colony of individuals or as a single one? If the latter
 
fiG 199 * view is taken there eanof course be noquestion of asexual
 
fzvsli::;:::;;::)‘lf,? reproduction involved. If on the other hand the pro~
T‘”"“‘ "‘”““7’3 I ttid is re arded as an individual since each h‘
“ltll an accessory g 0  . ’  a
v(..,,,.1e attached complete genital apparatus and since each has the ability
S°°l°°°5 “"3 to live at least for some time after the separation from
present in both _ _
(From Korschelt the remainder of the worm, then its method of forma;‘3';‘:tI){°'d°" “Mr tion must be looked upon as budding, it being thus
 
. produced from the scolex. It is the writer’s opinion that
 
the colonial view is not as generally held now as formerly.
 
There can be no question that in the development of the tapeworm
from the eysticercus budding does occur. The egg develops into the
onchosphere, the six-hooked embryo, in which condition it escapes from
its adult host, and is taken in by the intermediate one. From it develops
directly the eysticercus. The scolex of the eysticercus arises from a
thickening in the wall of the bladder which becomes depressed into the
cavity and later this bud-like structure is cverted to form the little worm.
 
It occasionally happens that two or more scoleces are formed by budPOLYZOA 307
 
like thickenings on the wall of the same bladder. This multiple production of scolices is rather rare but occurs regularly as is well known in
Taenia echinococcus with disastrous results to the host. This is of course
reproduction by budding. In some forms the bladders themselves may
constrict and produce two vesicles each of which buds into a scolex.
Polyzoa. Since the Bryozoa, or Polyzoa as it is now becoming custom~
ary to call them, commonly form colonies, it is to be expected that
asexual reproduction will be found in this group, and the expectation is
borne out. Three asexual methods, as well as polyembryony, are found
here. They are budding, stolonization, and the formation of statoblasts.
As a manifestation of the complicated condition which asexual reproduction may reach in a single group, the Bryozoa probably exceed any
other branch of the animal kingdom. A student of the subject will find
much to interest him in the group and may expect to see an everchanging variety of detail as he studies the different divisions of it. For
 
 
Fm. 200. Buds of ('ris!aleHa muredo in median section. (From Korschelt and Ileider.
after Braem.)
ee , ectoderm, m., mesoderm.
 
the general student of comparative embryology, however, it seems unnecessary to give more than a very brief consideration to the general
types of asexual reproduction as they are developed here. From a consultation of the table of classification on page 260 the student will
observe that the phylum Molluscoidea, of which the Polyzoa are a
portion, consists of animals very diverse in structure and in their
method of development. They range from rather simple colonies to
aggregations of organizations which are complex in the extreme. Among
the simplest genera is Cristatella, coming under the ectoproct order,
Phylactolaemata. All the individuals of a colony of this form can be
traced to the first one which develops from the larva. This individual
produces buds commonly as thickenings of the pharynx on the oral
side, both ectoderm and mesoderm participating in the process, although
the ectoderm contributes a larger portion to the formation of the new
individual. As the bud enlarges it grows out from the parent individual
and its inner cell mass undergoes a very considerable differentiation.
The intestinal tracts commonly remain in communication at least for
308 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
some time. An entire series of buds which in their turn repeat the process
is involved in the production of the colony. The development of buds in
the Endoprocta closely resembles that just described. The bud is first
an enlargement of eetoderinal cells which receives migrations of meso
W
 
 
 
0
 
F16. 201. A piece of Plumalella fungnsa showing the formation of the primary buds and
of those which arise secondarily.
 
dermal cells as it develops. In this group a stalk makes the bud rather
more independent than in the preceding. In some forms, notably the
ectoproet groups Crissia and Tubulipora, budding takes place in the
embryonic stages even before any differentiation of the blastomeres
begins. The primary embryo produces a
 
32 B13 C D E F great number of buds in such a case and
B, may become a stem and retain the others
as secondary embryos or it may be en—
tirely destroyed in their production. Of
course the secondary embryos may also
reproduce asexually. It is rather rare that
the buds should separate naturally from
each other, for it is by their uninterrupted
relation to each other that the colony is
Fm 202. Dmgmmmntic “_pm_ formed. They may branch laterally from
 
aem,m.,n of the method 0; i,m,ci.- the main stalk or may continue in a direct
 
in“ i" P“”"“"'”“ f"‘“‘”"*"“' (l“'°’“ line of the main branch. It is obvious that
Korsehelt and Heider, after _ , . _ ’
Bmem) in such a highly organized type of animal
as this, polymorphism of the individuals is
to be expected. Special morphological changes take place so that some
of the individuals of the colony become very much changed from the
typical form and have very different functions. The Bryozoa. always reproduce by sending out stolons which then bud many times. The formation
of the stolon itself is like that of the bud but it grows out as a stalk which
 
by repeated incomplete divisions produces a new portion of the colony.
 
A
 
I V
AB3B‘~’BBC‘C D E 1‘ G
POLYZOA 309
 
Some fresh-water forms produce hibernacula. which.‘ are essentially
winter buds, club-like swellings on the stolons which enclose themselves
in a cutaneous capsule during the period of severe winter. In the spring
their development continues to form new colonies. Accidental subdivision of a colony is of course common, but the multiplication of the
colony by fragmentation appears also to occur naturally.
 
fiG. 203. Production of zooecia ns buds from stolons (st.) of Pedicellina erhinala.
(From Korschelt and Heider, after Ehlors.)
 
A final method of asexual reproduction is the formation of statoblasts.
According to an old view a statoblast is supposed to arise from a single
cell and upon the basis of this it was thought to be a sort of winter egg.
It is now realized that the statoblasts are modified buds which have
become changed into reproductive buds. They vary in shape, but are
enclosed in a cutaneous capsule and contain several cells. They are
310 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
able to withstand extremes of temperature and thus serve to carry on
 
the colony during the cold of the winter.
Amwlida. Asexual reproduction is of common occurrence in the two
most important groups of the annelids, namely the polyehaetes and the
 
 
Fm. 204. Statoblasts of Cristatella mucedo. (From Korschelt and Heider, after Kraepelin.)
 
oligochaetes. This is due to the remarkable uniformity in the structure
which the annelid body possesses, each segment being very similar to
its neighbor. The growth of the annelid worm is accomplished by the
 
   
 
J __ ._5B.'5:'l!
 
w
 
 
 
 
 
C
‘SIN! _
.. " ifl‘-Jijurvl
‘ .u1l1“‘L4“ .
 
 
 
F10. 205. Developmental stages of the statoblasts of Crietazella. (From Korschelt and
Heider, after Verworn.)
 
addition of the somites to the posterior end primarily, although anterior
zones of budding are also found. In some instances the formation of new
somites takes place more rapidly than their separation from the animal
ANNELIDA 31 1
 
and thus a chain of individuals is formed. In a simple annelid chain in
which the individuals of a series are spoken of as zooids in anticipation
 
 
fiG. 206. Germinating statoblasts of Cristatella. (From Korschelt and Heidcr, after
Braem.)
 
A. the “germ disc" stage. B, its invagination preparatory to further growth.
 
of their future development to individual worms the anterior individual
represents the original worm and is obviously the oldest. At its posterior
 
 
fiG. 207. Posterior end of Trypanosyllis misakiensis showing buds of difierent ranks.
(From Korschelt and Heidor. after Johnson.)
 
end is a reproductive zone where the budding oil’ of new individuals
takes place. The first individual budded off is of course the most posterior
3 12 ASEXUAL REPROD1 'C'l‘ION
 
of the chain, the others grading in age and size
toward the middle of the worm where the budding
zone is located. In the more complicated cases, of
which the syllids are the extreme example, we
may have not only terminal budding but also
lateral and even ventral. In one of these forms,
Trypanosyllis misakiensis, single budding soon
produces numerous buds in all
directions differing in age but
,.,:‘:.:-as *;:::r;..:" Merwisc giving the W231‘(Fmm Komheltamui ance of a rosette of small zooids.
after v. Kenr}x]<:)l.) Between these two extremes lie
gen‘: 0,  S ‘V various degreesof complication
in the forms produced. In many
marine polychaetes a differentiation with respect to
reproductive capacity is observed between the (lif
ferent parts of the animal. The anterior portion of
 
 
the individual is sexless and is spoken of as the atoke. = H
At the time of sexual maturity this slow-moving
worm becomes very active, the hinder somites de- = 1
 
velop gonads, and special 1
 
‘W bristlesandparapodiagrow
 
El ‘ W _ out on them, developing
 
lllllllll  them for rapid and exten
sive movement. This sexual
 
portion is spoken of as the __
 
cpitoke, and individuals of "
 
this kind were earlier given
 
special systematic descrip
tions. It is now clear, how
ever, that N ereis, for ex— Fm- 209. Diu. grains to show the
 
ample; passes Over "Ito divisions zones in
 
H eteronereis or the epito— £0": hmlzaa. d(fir{or}1
- . . t kous stage. In many po1.v- dfflfnir c‘L'how..,°.3
 
chaetes, the epitokous por
tion separates from the remainder and swims
: ' , ' ' d t th —
 
Fm. 210 The mlom about a(t1vely for a certain perio a e sur
 
worm. Eunice vimkiis, show- face of the sea. This is the swarming which
 
5”‘! ‘he ‘“”°’°“°° be‘“"~‘°" takes place in N ereis and is especially notable
the anterior ntokous part , ' . . . .
and the posterior epitokous in the palolo-worm, Eumce 1)27'Zd’l8, whose
 
portion. (From Korschelt . ‘ ' ' ' d
and Heme“ aim W00d_ swarmxngm the south Paeificisoften observe
 
ward.) as a very unusual phenomenon.
ANNELIDA 313
 
A further (-lassificatioii of tho asexual methods of reproduction in this
group may he based upon the degree of preparation which precedes
 
fiG. 211. J! yriamda fumata with 29 zooids. (From Korscholt and Heider. after
Maluquin.)
 
the division. In the simpler cases the division of the worm takes place
between two segments with no special zone of separation having been
developed. Following the division regeneration occurs producing a head
314 ASEXUAL REPRODYCTION
 
or tail, or in some cases where a portion of the middle of the worm is
cut off from both ends both head and tail are regenerated. As has been
pointed out this regeneration after division is known as architomy in
contradistinction to paratomy where a. separation zone is developed
before division. Such a zone is really the beginning of an early regeneration and may be present in variable degrees all the way from a simple
region of constriction to the formation of a well—developed head and
sensory apparatus.
 
Architomy is illustrated in Ctenodrzlus monostylus where without
much preparation the worm divides into an anterior and posterior part
by constriction and the lacking parts
are regenerated. Regeneration begins
at once, although the new worms continue to creep about actively in spite of
the fact that they cannot for a short
while take in food. Architomy may be
accomplished by autotomous division
of the worm. A number of polychaetes
and oligochaetes have such great powers
of regeneration that they are enabled
to separate without external stimulation. Lumbnculus is an annelid of this
type.
 
Paratomy is illustrated by certain
species of Ctenodrzlas also, especially
C. serratus, in which the regenerative
powers are so great that even single
segments may in certain cases produce
new worms. Beginning a few segments
 
Fm 012 Tami”: mulomm with a back of the head, cellular prolrferations
pnmaw" ,e;;(.,,e,a,,,,g Dome" and mo takeplacewhichgraduallyformthicken  ings on the anterior side of each segment.
 
' They become the head folds and give
rise to the organs of the head region in the new zooids. Thus a chain of
zooids is formed asexually. Additions of this sort produce what is functionally an alternation of generations. It is scarcely developed with the
regularity that characterizes this process in such forms as hydroids. The
original individual was developed from the egg. It produces asexually
a chain of zooids which separate from each other and when weather
conditions become suitable develop further into individuals which reproduce sexually. Of course second and third asexual generations may
be produced in the same manner as the first one.
PTEROBRANCHIA 315
 
Echinodermata. Among the echinoderms asexual reproduction is
described, but it is certainly of rare occurrence and one has difliculty in
distinguishing it from an extreme type of regeneration. Spontaneous
division of the arms and in some cases the splitting of the disc have been
described in the asteroids, ophiuroids, and in the holothurians. Asteroids
have been seen to split and separate, beginning at the gullet, and then
 
flu. 213. S1/Ilis ramosa showing anterior end of worm and the complex branching. The
gut is stippled in the figure. (From Korsehelt and Heidor. after Maclntosh.)
 
the missing arms and organs of the disc to become gradually regenerated.
It is of course well known that where accidental separation of the parts
of an echinoderm is brought about extensive regenerations follow and
theoretically there is no great difference between this and a natural
type of division followed by regeneration. However, the latter is certainly of earlier occurrence.
 
Pterobranchia. The two genera Cephalodiscus and Rhabdopleura which
compose the anomalous Pterobranchia both illustrate asexual reproduc316 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
tion by budding. Their doubtful position showing similarities both to
Balanoglossus and to the Bryozoa is nevertheless in line with their type
of reproduction. Cephalodiscus occurs as a single individual from the
side of which a stalk grows out. This stalk bears a bud as is shown in
the well-known figure often copied from Maclntosh. The bud arises from
the apex of the ventral stalk and after a certain age breaks off. The
animal lives in a gelatinous coenoecium where a large number of free
individuals may be found. The animal possesses practically all the
important organs found in Balanoglossus and structurally seems related to that form. Its method of asexual reproduction, however, much
more strongly resembles that of the Polyzoa. Resemblance to the latter
group is rather more striking in Rhabdopleura which lives in a tube and
reproduces in a manner similar to that
of the stoloniferous Bryozoa. The general
anatomy, however, closely resembles that
of Cephalodiscus. In Rhabdopleura the individuals derived from the buds remain
close together and form small colonies
living in branched tubes. They are con—
nected by a muscular cord which passes
back to join a common stem or stolen.
The cord is the narrowed proximal portion
of the body. By its contraction the animal
is retracted into a stalk. The stolen is developed as a bud from the original zooid,
 
1«'.c.. 214. ('c1)Iw,lod£scus with but the details of the process are not well
§:f:‘lt'i$;:f’)“‘M“°I“t°*h'“'i”"“°‘ll‘ understood. Part of the stolen loses its
 
formative power and becomes merely a
connection between the creeping parts of the colony. The remainder,
however, buds, and the buds give rise to branches. In the free-growing
part there always appear two buds, an anterior, well—developed one
and a posterior much younger.
 
Tunicata. Among the tunicates asexual reproduction is widespread
and occurs as an important means of multiplication in two of the main
divisions of this subphylum, the composite ascidians and the salps.
The dominant type is budding but the details show various departures
from the simple form and even instances of fission are observed within
this group. It will perhaps serve our purpose to limit our discussion to
the budding in the two cases mentioned, understanding that there are
some other minor examples to be met with in this group. The embryology of the ascidians has been described in Part One of this book. The
young embryo grows and in many cases begins its process of budding
TUNICATA
 
317
 
before it has become attached and begun its metamorphosis. It is customary to speak of the individual which is produced from the egg as an
oozooid whereas the individuals which are produced from buds are
blastozooids. However, the individuals so called may become modified
 
in various ways and be given other names to indicate functional and morphological differences
which later occur, for budding in the tunicates as in
some other groups leads to polymorphism and to
alternation of generations.
 
In the compound ascidians there are two main
types of budding, palleal and stolonial, differentiated
according to the position on the oozooid in which
they occur. By palleal budding, which also goes
under the name of peribranchial or atrial, or also
cntero-epicardial, is meant the growth of a bud as
an oesophageal or even intestinal outgrowth; it is
thus derived near the atrial wall and under the
mantle or pallium. It is common for the buds to be
formed as lateral evaginations of the body Wall in
symmetrical parts, but usually only one of them
develops. Mesoderm and germ cells migrate from
the tissues of the mother into the bud which gradually becomes a complete individual. The processes
are the same in the asexually produced blastozooid
and in the oozooid which are developed from the
egg, but the oozooid undergoes a retardation in development and never reaches sexual maturity
whereas the blastozooid develops fully although it
is to be noted that both may reproduce asexually
as well as sexually. The oozooid is short lived. After
it has reached the typical form of the ascidian it
undergoes retrogression and its tissues are used to
build up new individuals. In the composite aseidians
although the buds are independent of each other
they yet remain enclosed in a common cellulose
mantle, and after a number of generations have
 
         
 
   
 
‘ ‘~ .-..-.-I!l!‘."'€.;',.7,_,,’
 
Fm. 215. Budding in
Rhabdopleura normanni.
 
(From a diagram by
Korschelt and Heider.)
 
b. buds of different
ranks from a common
stolon (st.).
 
been produced the mass takes on the form of buds united into a very
definite system built upon the plan of concentric circles of buds. As
the system becomes more and more complicated some of the individuals
become crowded out of their proper place and so become the center of
a new irregular subdivision of buds. In this way a colony is formed.
The place of origin of the buds varies in difierent genera, a fact which
318 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
gives rise to the marked differences in appearance of different colonies
of compound ascidians. Thus we have pyloric budding which is also
called oesophageal, epicardo-oesophageal, and epicardo-rectal budding.
In this type when the blastozooid buds it is really of compound origin,
the new process arising from abdominal and thoracic outgrowths, the
abdominal bud being an invagination of the oesophagus and the thoracic
formed largely from the epicardium. From a diverticulum of the left
portion of the epicardium the nervous system is derived. It is thus
endodermal in origin in the blastozooid, although in the oozooid it is
derived in the regular manner from the ectoderm. Pyloric budding is
described chiefly in the didemnids and the diplosomids. Among the
modifications of the general type of budding described for the compound
ascidians are the cases spoken of as pseudo-stolonial, occurring especially in the distomid Distaplia and in the polyclinids. Authorities differ
in the manner in which they regard the budding of these forms, some
tracing it to the formation of a stolon and others regarding it as more
nearly related to the type already described. In Distaplia the formation
of the “primordial buds” has been described as coming from the epicardium, but Salensky, Julin, Della Valle, and others have described
this as a proliferating stolon from the intestine. The first generation
of these buds never develops sex products but later generations of buds
may reproduce sexually. It may be noted that the epicardium is wrongly
named in that it does not participate in the formation of the pericardium
and the heart, although it was so described by van Beneden and J ulin.
Actually it is the endodermal element of each bud. In the polyclinids
the budding of the posterior part of the animal resembles horizontal
division, for the caudal part of the larva clongates and constricts, forming thorax, abdomen, and post-abdomen; gonads and heart develop in
the latter which subsequently segments to form buds. By some this
entire caudal portion is regarded as a stolon.
 
As an example of stolonial budding reference may be made to Perophora and to Clavellina. In Clavellina, after its attachment, root—like
processes are sent out from the base giving it a more firm hold. At least
one of these processes becomes the proliferating stolon (stolo prolzfer).
The stolon consists of the three germ layers in addition to the cellulose
tunic which covers it. From it arise buds as well as side branches. If a
particular outgrowth contains an endodermal layer it would develop
into a bud. Otherwise it is merely a sterile branch. Buds arise near the
growing tip of the stolon, but simultaneously with their development
the top continues to grow, so those near the base of the stolon are the
more mature. Younger ones sometimes arise as a new generation of
buds between the older ones. Stolonial budding takes place only from
TUNICATA 319
 
the oézooid for the blastozooid can reproduce sexually. It should be
noted in regard to the formation of colonies that although the usual
condition is the production of an entire colony from a single oozooid,
yet small colonies sometimes grow so close together that concrescence
results and they fuse into a larger colony.
 
 
 
     
   
 
ooooo
 
g’
 
   
 
   
 
F16. 216 An adult of Clavellma with a stolen and .i young individual budded ofi from
it (From Korschelt and Hcider, after Secliger )
 
In many respects the most interesting case of asexual reproduction
in the tunicates is the formation of the Salpa chains from a proliferating
stoloii. When investigators first began to study Salpa, solitary individuals were found, and also others which appeared to have a significantly different structure and were connected together like a chain or
even a rosette were also occasionally discovered. At length the relation
between the two was made out by the poet, Chamisso, who discovered
that the solitary individuals can produce the chain salps and that
certain individuals of the chains developed sex organs from which the
320 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 
solitary individuals were again formed. The solitary individual always
reproduces asexually but is itself produced from a fertilized egg. From
the ventral side of the posterior half of such a solitary individual a bud,
which first arose from the pharyngeal endostyle and is therefore in its
beginning eiidodermal, grows out. As it enlarges, the mesoderm and
ectoderm surround it, and finally it becomes a projection from the tunic
as well. It is a direct continuation of the ectoderm and endoderm of the
 
     
 
""-‘Kw;
 
- 41;!!!
 
St Iliasc
 
 
fiG 217. Nearly adult stages of Dolwlum dentwulatum (From Korschclt and H0|d(‘r,
after Neumann.)
 
cl , cloacu, d c , dorsal horn or cadophore to which buds Will be uttuchcd, st , \CIlU‘dl
stolon from whuh buds are produced, t , mil with chorda
 
parent individual and its parts are likewise related to the organs which
develop in its buds derived from it. This is the ventral proliferating
stolen and the individual producing it is the oozooid developed from
the single egg of the gonozooid.
 
The history of the ventral stolon differs somewhat in Salpa and
Doliolum. Perhaps the latter, as described by Uljanin, is the one more
familiar to students. As in the compound ascidians the oozooid produces
no sexual organs but a great many buds arise from it in a complicated
manner and the chain thus produced exhibits a high degree of polyVERTEBRATA 321
 
morphism. Indeed, the oozooid itself degenerates until it becomes
nothing but a locomotor organ of the rest of the chain. The buds are
produced continuously for a considerable time from the ventral stolon.
They do not remain in that part of the body, however, but migrate
dorsally to a posterior dorsal horn, or cadophore, which is an outgrowth
resembling somewhat a stolen but does not of itself bud. Its epithelial
cells become specially suited for the attachment and nourishment of
the migrating buds which will presently reach it. As a matter of fact,
however, there are more buds in the dorsal cadophore than were produced from the ventral stolon, multiplication in the form of a simple
division having taken place during the migration. The cadophore continues its growth and more and more buds are attached to it. They
arrange themselves in two lateral rows and one dorsal median row.
The lateral blastozooids which are attached by a short stalk are nutritive and respiratory. They are apparently unable to reproduce
and are morphologically independent of the rest of the colony. The
median blastozooids are spoken of as nurse individuals, or phorozooids.
They are rounded and have a stalk on the ventral side. It is this stalk
which bears the buds that in their turn are to give rise to the sexual
forms. Like the lateral blastozooids, the nurses are non-reproductive.
The buds which arise from the stalk of the phorozooids are usually
spoken of as protogonozooids. From these the sexual blastozooids, that
is, the gonozooids, are produced. They are free swimming, undergo a
considerable change in their general structure, develop sex organs, and
the cycle is completed, for from the fertilized egg comes the new zooid
ready to begin the asexual cycle again. Thus there are two distinct
asexual generations, the oozooid and the protogonozooid, and some of
the blastozooids have also multiplied by simple division in passing to
the dorsal cadophore. These two asexual generations alternate with the
one sexual generation. The development of all forms of Salpa is not
understood yet and in some cases it is difficult to interpret the forms
that have been found. The life cycle of Doliolum, however, illustrates
satisfactorily the degree to which asexual reproduction is developed in
these forms.
 
Vertebrate. In forms higher than the tunicates asexual reproduction
does not commonly occur. However, the case of the armadillo which is
described in detail in the chapter on polyembryony must be mentioned.
Here a blastocyst is formed as a result of the cleavage of the egg which
produces by budding four individuals. This is, of course, an asexual
method of multiplication, and may be of general significance, as is
suggested by the production of identical twins in various other forms
of mammals.
 
==Chapter V Parthenogenesis==
 
I. NORMAL PARTHENOGENESIS
 
A. GENERAL DISCUSSION
 
As an embryological problem the phenomenon of parthenogcnesis has
been of interest since its discovery in 1762 when Bonnet found that the
summer generations of aphids reproduce by means of unfertilized eggs.
The literature dealing with the subject is a vast one, for parthenogencsis
is of wide occurrence in the animal kingdom and is also known among
the plants. In spite of the vast amount of research on the problem,
however, it has only recently become possible to bring the known cases
into any kind of systematic order. The problem also has a great deal 01
cytological and genetical interest for we are here dealing with uniparcntal
inheritance and it is obvious that the chromosomal mechanism which
explains the inheritance of bisexual forms must undergo some modification to account for the appearances in unisexual organisms. While the
cytological and genetieal aspects of parthenogenesis are closely related
to the embryological, we can treat them only briefly and must devote
ourselves chiefly to the embryological problems.
 
Confusion sometimes develops in the mind of the student in relation
to parthenogencsis for at first thought one is apt to class all types of
uniparental inheritance together and think of parthenogcnesis as a
modified asexual type. The fallacy of this conclusion is easily seen,
however, for parthenogenesis deals with the development of an egg
although without the cooperation of a spermatozoon. It is clearly a
gametic form of reproduction; its relationships are perhaps more easily
understood if we speak consistently of unisexual and bisexual reproduction. It would perhaps be still clearer to use the terms monogametic
and digametie, although these are not commonly found in the literature.
The critical point in the evidence that we are here dealing with a second
type of sexual reproduction is seen in the formation of polar bodies and
the behavior of the chromosome during the maturation division. In
some cases of parthenogenesis polar bodies are often seen to be formed
and in other cases the behavior of the chromosomes in reduction is
 
well known. In addition to this evidence, the sporadic occurrence of
322
TERM INOLOGY 323
 
parthenogenesis in diverse classes of the animal kingdom, the occasional
occurrence of parthenogenesis along with the bisexual method in the
same species of animal, as for example the bee, and the not uncommon
alternation of the parthenogenetic mode with typical sexual reproduction in the course of several generations within the same animal all bear
out the same conclusion. Furthermore, the fact of artificial parthenogenesis, that is, the activation of an egg which would otherwise develop
only by fertilization, shows that we are dealing with what must be a
modification of the usual type of bisexual reproduction. Artificial parthenogenesis means the initiation of development on the part of the
egg by chemical or physical stimulation artificially induced to take the
place of the type of initiation usually to be seen only when the sperm
enters the egg. It is really a study in experimental embryology which
has been of the greatest value in giving an insight into the true nature
of the process of fertilization.
 
a. Terminology. Throughout the animal kingdom parthenogenesis
occurs in a wide variety of types and under many different conditions.
Owing to this fact the literature concerning it contains many descriptive
terms that are of special application and about which some confusion of
meaning has grown up, as has been the case in certain other processes
that are familiar but not clearly understood by the majority of students.
In some species parthenogenesis is of rare occurrence and the eggs
simply possess the power of developing without the intervention of the
sperm, although they usually develop after fertilization. Such cases are
known as facultative or optional and are of such irregular occurrence
in the series as to be of no great embryological significance. Obligatory
parthenogenesis occurs regularly in the life cycle of organisms which
show it as a constant feature or only at certain intervals. Its importance
is manifested by the fact that parthenogenetic eggs are often structurally different from those that are to be fertilized and there are morphological differences between the animals which are produced parthenogenetically and those which are produced bisexually. For instance, the
eggs of daphnids which are fertilized usually develop only during the
colder seasons of the year; they are known as winter eggs and have
a protective shell that is very different from the summer eggs. Oftentimes cases of obligatory parthenogenesis show an alternation of
generations although not of an asexual generation with a sexual, but of
a unisexual generation or a series of them, with a bisexual generation.
Where this type of development is firmly established a series of par
thenogenetic generations may be developed to such an extent that it
becomes the predominant method of reproduction and sexual genera3 24 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
tions appear only at infrequent intervals. Many of the more familiar
cases of parthenogenesis are of this type.
 
Even in the extreme obligatory type it is often possible by experimental means to induce the sexual process, for instance, by a change
of the environmental conditions. The rotifer, Hydatina senta, as shown
by Shull and by Whitney, in old culture infusions will continue parthenogenetically for long periods of time, but if a fresh culture fluid is used
bisexual animals soon make their appearance. Conversely, it is possible
by maintaining appropriate conditions to postpone or even entirely to
suppress the sexual process, as in the case of the rose aphid when cultivated through a series of years in a greenhouse.
 
In cases where structural differences are to be observed between the
parthenogenetic and the bisexually developed eggs, a functional difference also is frequently seen in that the eggs of certain individuals are
exclusively male producing, that is arrhenotokous, and of others female
producing, or thelytokous. Where both males and females are produced
in one brood, parthenogenesis is said to be amphoterotokous. Where the
number of parthenogenetic generations which occurs before the sexual
animals are produced is indefinite we say that the species has an “open
life cycle.” Such cases occur in the aphids and in some species of phylloxerans. In others the female which produces the parthenogenetic eggs and
hence is known as the stem mother must develop directly from the
previous fertilized egg. This is the “ closed ” type, and it occurs in certain
other phylloxerans and in the gall flies.
 
Considering the embryological aspects we should classify known
cases according to the grade or degree of parthenogenesis shown. It is
possible to distinguish seven or eight different grades of parthenogenesis
as follows: (a) Pathological. In the ova of birds it is frequently observed
that a few cleavages take place resembling the normal but not leading
to the formation of the blastula. Similar phenomena have been observed
in some other eggs as well. (b) Casual parthenogenesis. In the case of the
silk moths under exceptional conditions aspermic development takes
place. (0) Occasional parthenogenesis. In the ants, bees, and wasps, the
development of the egg without fertilization always produces a male.
(d) Partial parthenogenesis. The queen bee by the copulation on the
nuptial flight receives all of the sperm which she will ever use, and
afterwards she can fertilize the egg to produce a female, that is, a
worker or a queen, or leave it to develop parthenogenetically into a
male, since she has control over the process. (e) Seasonal parthenogenesis.
In the case of Daphnia already mentioned and other Entomostraca and
also the aphids the summer eggs are parthenogenetic and the winter
fertilized. (f) Larval parthenogenesis. The case of Miastor is described
CYTOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS 325
 
in the chapter on paedogenesis. Some larvae are produced parthenogenetically and inside of them others through a number of generations.
each eating its way out and producing yet others. finally the last larvae
pupate, undergo metamorphosis, and develop bisexual forms. (g) Total
 
parthenogenesis. Only parthenogenetic eggs occur through many generations as is especially illustrated by the rotifers.
 
b. Cytological Relationships. A consideration of the cases of parthenogenesis upon the basis of their cytological conditions leads to the common
classification of haploid and diploid parthenogenesis. By haploid parthenogenesis is meant the development without fertilization of an egg
which has gone through the process of chromosome reduction. Haploid
eggs in general are sexual, and in most cases in which aspermic development is possible the eggs are found to be capable of development either
with or without fertilization. Hymenoptera, some of the Hemiptera,
and the arachnids often exhibit haploid parthenogenesis. One case, the
nematode Rhabdites (R. aberrans according to Kruger and R. pellio
according to P. Hertwig), is worthy of note, however. Here the eggs
develop parthcnogcnetically and are of the haploid type but the penetration of the sperm is necessary to initiate the development although
it takes no further part and no true fertilization is accomplished. After
it has penetrated the cortex of the egg, and thus set going the developmental processes, the sperm degenerates and the further development
of the egg is as much parthenogenetic as if no sperm had been involved.
 
Diploid parthenogenesis is much more frequent, occurring in most
of the other groups where parthenogenesis is found at all. Copepods,
ostraeods, and the Hemiptera-Homoptera have this type characteristically whereas trematodes, nematodes, echinoderms, the phyllopods,
the Orthoptera, and the Lepidoptera exhibit it in certain forms. An
intermediate condition is found in the rotifers, both diploid and haploid
parthenogenesis having been described for these forms. Triploid parthenogenesis is also known but is not common. The best understood case is
that of the plant genus Hieracium which has been described by Rosenberg. There are two sections of this genus which differ in their cytological
behavior. The sexual form of H. umbulatum has a diploid chromosome
number of 18 whereas the variety linearifolium has a diploid number
of 27. There are also some in which the diploid number is 36. The parthenogenetic Archieracium, which is closely related to this species,
shows a chromosome number of 27. Rosenberg explains these facts
upon the basis of hybridization. The triploid races, Rosenberg maintains, cannot easily beproduced by the usual bisexual processes. Triploid
parthenogenesis, however, is of rare occurrence, and the triploidy in
326 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
animals which result from fertilization of a diploid egg, if that can
occur, certainly produces only an abnormal zygote.
 
Usually the number of polar bodies which is given off by the animal
egg permits, the observer to distinguish whether he is dealing with the
haploid or diploid mode of development; in the haploid case two polar
bodies are produced in the haploid manner, whereas in the diploid a
 
single maturation division produces only one polar body and no reduc-'
 
tion of chromosomes can take place. There is one special case of parthenogenesis to which was early ascribed theoretical significance in working
out a theory of fertilization. O. Hertwig in 1890 described a process in
the maturation of the starfish Astropecten which has been many times
referred to since, namely, the reunion of the nucleus of the second polar
body with that of the egg. A similar condition was reported by Lefevre
for the egg of Thalessema in which the second polar body is not extruded,
the spindle remaining “submerged” in the cytoplasm of the egg. Upon
the basis of these observations parthenogenesis was for a long time supposed to be explained as a kind of fertilization by the polar body. It is
now known, however, that such cases seldom occur. A somewhat analogous case is that of the wasp H abrobracon in which a cytological study
shows parthenogcnetieally produced males to be haploid on account of
the fact that the first spermatocyte division is abortive while the second is
equational (A. Whiting, 1927). Of course cases in which only one maturation division occurs are not rare.
 
c. Parthenogenesis and Sex. Much of the work upon parthenogenesis
has been due to the bearing of the problem upon sex determination.
Many experiments have been made for the purpose of discovering what
factors can influence the production of males or females within the
parthenogenetic strains. Especially have the rotifers been used for
experiments of this kind. Punnett observed various kinds of females as
follows: arrhenotokous females or those which produce males; thelytokous females (female producers) of three kinds, namely, those which
produce, respectively, a large percentage, a small percentage, and those
which produce no arrhenotokous females. In the attempt to influence
the sex of the progeny of these forms conflicting results have been obtained. The studies of rotifers have been most extensively carried on by
Whitney and by Shull. In general Shull’s experiments on the modification of sex have yielded positive results, for he has found a relationship
between metabolism and sex determination. When the quantity of food
given H ydatina senta is small the number of male producers is increased;
old food reduces the number. Creatin, ammonium salts, beef extract,
and low temperature prevent the formation of male producers. Longcontinued parthenogenesis results in a decrease in male production.
INTERSEXES 327
 
Oxygen in the water increases it, although osmotic pressure, alkalinity,
and acidity were not found to be effective. Whether the egg is to develop
into a male or a female producer is decided during the growth period
but not in the early oogonial stages. Sex is determined a generation in
advance.
 
Whitney, on the other hand, has found less evidence that male production is a response to external conditions, although he did find that
crowding in H. senta permitted the development of fewer male producers in direct proportion to the degree of the crowding. He found,
however, that neither oxygen, temperature, nor starvation is a factor.
One of his strains when fed continuously upon a diet of Polytonia produced nearly all females for twenty-five generations, only three per
cent of the daughters being male producing. But a change of diet to
Dunaliella increased the percentage to 57. When they were fed again
upon Polytonia, the percentage fell off. The influence of the food was
found to be upon the grandmother.
 
In addition to the work of Shull and of Whitney, Noyes has reported
a series of experiments on Proales decipiens lasting through 250 generations in which no males appeared although the animals were subjected
to various environmental changes including changes of chemical composition, of temperature, and of feed. More found Brachionus to give
increased arrhenotekous females upon treatment with chemicals such
as ferric chloride (FeCl), whereas constant diet and temperature gave
only thelytokous individuals.
 
Banta has studied the sex production in the parthenogenetic Cladocera,
especially in M oina macrocopa. His studies with Brown upon sex control
showed that experimental crowding brought about male production
along with lowered metabolism in the females. The amount of food was
not found to affect the results but a change in its character did have a
profound effect. Male production was associated with an accumulation
of excretory substances. Aeration with oxygen decreased the production
of males even in crowded cultures. Similarly carbon dioxide, urea, and
ammonium salts as well as other products related to excretion reduced
the number of males.
 
d. Intersexes. Another problem in relation to sex has appeared in
some of the parthenogenetie strains of Cladocera. It is the condition of
intersexes or, as originally described by Banta, sex intergrades. The
intersex condition manifests itself through the secondary sex characteristics in that a typical female has a series of eight secondary sex characters which are identified with her sex, and similarly for a typical male.
The eight characters are as follows: (1) body size, the females are the
larger at maturity; (2) size and position of the eye, the eyes of the
328 PARTHENOG EN ESIS
 
females being smaller and crowding the margin of the head less than
those of the males; (3) outline of the head, the angle of the anteroventral margins of the head being more acute in the male; (4) absence
in the female of the nuchal protuberance; (5) and (6) character of first
antennae, the males having swollen basal portions and two lateral
stylets; and (7) and (8) the outline and armature of the lateral postabdominal margins, these being more concave and not serrated in the
female. The intersex individuals may have the sex organs of either sex
accompanied by from one to several of the secondary sex characters of
the other sex. There are also hermaphroditic forms with various combinations of the male and female secondary characters. It is Banta’s
opinion that these intersex conditions in Cladocera and other parthenogenetically reproducing forms are probably determined by environmental factors.
 
A relation of hermaphroditism to parthenogenesis appears in certain
cases and it has been suggested by Winkler that it is one of transition,
hermaphroditism leading over into parthenogenesis. At least the case
of Rhabdites aberrans as described by Kruger points in that direction.
These animals are free-living nematodes found in moist earth and are
almost exclusively females, two counts showing four males out of 10,000
females and thirty-two males out of 2026 individuals, respectively. But
the females are hermaphroditic and the entrance of sperm into the egg
is necessary for the initiation of development, although it takes no
further part in the process and the cleavage of the egg is as truly parthenogenetie as if no sperm had penetrated into it. In addition to this
relationship, hermaphroditism may be superimposed upon parthenogenesis at least in one family of the Phyllopoda where it appears that
Lepidurus which under favorable conditions reproduces parthenogcnetically “may become hermaphroditic when food is scarce ” (Bcrnard,1896).
 
e. Geographical Races. Another matter of interest is the occurrence
of geographical races which are parthenogcnetic. The phyllopod, Artemia
salina, according to Artom, reproduces differently in different localities.
Races which are exclusively parthenogcnetic occur in Marseilles, at
Capodistria and in certain other Italian localities. Bisexual races occur
in Cagliari in Italy and in Utah; and a third class in which both bisexual
and parthenogcnetic modes occur is found at Odessa in Russia. Vandel
described the conditions in the isopod, Tr2‘chom'scus provisorius, in which
there are two distinct races, one bisexual in the usual sense, and the
other a female-producing parthenogcnetic race. These occupy distinct
regions, the latter occurring in northern Europe, but at some points the
two may co-exist. These two races are looked upon by Vandel as incipient species. Geographical parthenogenesis has also been observed
CAUSES OF PARTHENOGENESIS 329
 
in the moth Solenobia by Seiler. Solenobza triquetrella and S. znfleti occur
in both bisexual and parthenogenetic forms, the latter being permanent
and thelytokous. Of S. triquetrella the parthenogenetic form is widely
distributed in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, but the bisexual
form has been found in a single locality only. In S. pineti the bisexual
form is common but the parthenogenetic is restricted to a very few
localities. finally Trialeurodes vaporariorum, a white-fly has two races,
according to Schrader, that are unlike in their parthenogenesis, in that
the English race produces females with only three per cent males and
the American parthenogenetic females produce males only.
 
f. Causes of Parthenogenesis. Of the causes of natural parthenogenesis
little is known. It would seem that the developmental mechanism of
the egg is capable of activation in more than one manner. Usually the
entrance of a sperm into the egg sets off the processes which are involved.
This initiatory action is capable of imitation by both chemical and
physical means as in the cases of artificial parthenogenesis. There are
also conditions in which, it would appear, development may go forward
automatically, the participation of the sperm being entirely dispensed
with. In the case of the normal fertilization of any egg there is no reason
for regarding the developmental processes of the egg as brought to a.
standstill before the sperm enters. Rather they are slowed down to a
speed from which they will not recover unless external influences are
operative, usually in the form of the sperm. Perhaps monogametie
development is possible only where the inhibition is less intense, thus
giving automatically normal parthenogenesis. On this hypothesis the
failure to induce the development of sperm, by placing them in suitable
media as has been reported by Locb and others, may mean nothing more
than that the developmental processes in the sperm are reduced to a
still lower speed from which no means thus far tried have been effective
to return them to a functional level.
 
Other suggestions have also been ‘made as to the factors which are
responsible for parthenogenesis. Issakowitsch held that in Cladoeera
the alternation of bisexual and parthenogenetic stages was governed by
changes in the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. Papanicolau reached similar
conclusions. Shull, however, investigated the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratios
in the rotifer, H ydatina senta, without finding any correlation between
it and the mode of reproduction. Although it has been claimed that
food, oxygen content, and other similar external factors influence the
sex ratios of parthenogenetically produced animals, there is no good
evidence that these factors are responsible. Banta thought the formation
of an ephippium (winter egg, which develops upon fertilization) to be
330 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
due either to unintentional change in the media, in which parthenogenetic
daphnids had been developing, or to overcrowding.
 
Another suggestion (which is so far merely record of an observation
rather than a cause) relates to the lagging chromosome of the phylloxerans which is observed to accompany parthenogenesis. Peacock and
Harrison working upon lepidopteran crosses reached the conclusion
that parthenogenesis is a result of hybridity and later supported this
conclusion by a study of the data of other crosses including Nabours’
experiments on parthenogencsis in Apotettix. finally Nabours, working
upon Parateltirc, studied genetically two strains one of which was highly
parthenogenetic and the other had never so reproduced. He obtained
genetic evidence that parthcnogenesis is a character which segregates
in a Mendelian manner and believes it due to certain genes. Robertson’s
cytological studies on Nabours’ material fall into line with this hypothesis. The entrance of the sperm is necessary for the second polocyte
division, and when it is lacking the diploid chromosome number is
retained. In this latter case if the specific genes for parthenogenesis are
present development is initiated. It is to be noted that Agar working
upon Daphnia and Whiting upon Habrobracon failed to find genetic
evidence of the cause of parthenogenesis. But Punnett as long ago as
1906 had suggested the probability that the question is concerned with
the zygotic constitution of the egg and thought that it might be a
matter of Mendelian segregation. These different hypotheses show
the need of much further study of this most elusive subject.
 
B. THE OCCURRENCE or NORMAL PARTHENOGENESIS
 
Natural parthenogenesis is of much wider occurrence in the animal
kingdom than is generally recognized, and it is not rare among the
plants. Examples are found in the following groups of animals: rotifers,
nematodes, trematodes, Dinophilus, three orders of Crustacea, myriapods, arachnids, and ten orders of insects. It seems desirable to point
out some of the important studies in each of these groups, although no
attempt can be made toward inclusiveness. For references and a more
nearly complete listing of cases the reader should consult Winkler.
 
a. Rotzfera. Among the rotifers, as already described, typical arrheno—
tokous parthenogenesis occurs in the same groups of animals with
thelytokous parthenogenesis. The studies on Hydatina senta are among
the best known of all studies on the type of reproduction. Three types
of females, as previously indicated, are found here, and by experimental
means it is possible to change the strains from parthenogenetic to
bisexual.
CRUSTACEA 331
 
b. Nematode. For the nematodes the case of Rhabdites aberrans as
described by Kriiger has already been mentioned. The trematodes are
commonly described as giving rise to rediae from cells which are segregated at one end of the body of the sporocyst and become an ovary.
The new rediae arise from these so-called “ova,” which must be thought
to develop parthcnogenetically if the view of their origin is maintained
that these are true eggs. This controversial subject is discussed in other
chapters in this work.
 
c. Annelida. Among the annelids parthenogenesis is suspected in
Dinophilus conklini from the preponderance of females. In the leech
Ilemiclepsis marginata the early finding of parthenogenesis has failed
of confirmation in more recent experiments (Brumpt, 1900).
 
d. Crustacea. Two orders of the Entomostraca exhibit parthenogenesis and include in their number some cases that have been given a
great amount of study, while a third offers a case which is suspected to
be parthenogenetic. Among the Phyllopoda examples may be cited
from both the Branchiopoda and the Cladocera. Of the former, Apus,
Lepidurus, and Artemia are well known. Reference has already been
made to Lepidurus because of its hermaphroditic relationships. Thelytokous parthenogenesis occurs in these forms. Artemia salina likewise
has been mentioned in connection with geographic parthenogenesis.
On this form the most recent studies are those of Artom (1912). Two
polocytes are formed in the development of the egg. Regularly a reduction of chromosomes from 42 to 21 takes place. The parthenogenetic
forms are tetraploid and of a type called somatic. There are therefore
two strains of Artemia, one diploid and bisexual, the other tetraploid
and thelytokous parthcnogenetic. The following explanation has been
upon the basis of the very slight evidence that in the parthenogenetic
strain only one polocyte is formed (Brauer) and that without reduction.
If the egg and polocyte nuclei, both of which retained their somatic
number of 42 chromosomes, should fuse, then an individual with the
tetraploid number would be produced. As yet this explanation must be
looked upon as purely speculative. Numerous others of the true phyllo«
pods, such as Branchipus streptocephalus, have been observed to repro
duce parthenogenetically and still others are suspected because of the
scarcity or absence of males.
 
Of the work on the Cladoeera, which dates from Weismann’s studies
in 1879, the general facts are well known. Bisexual generations are
followed by parthenogenetic which may continue indefinitely. The
various races differ greatly in the number of generations produced within
a year and in the frequency of the bisexual forms. Apparently most if
not all forms are parthenogenetic at some stage of their life cycles, but
332 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
those genera most studied have been Daphnia, Simocephalus, M oina,
Bosmina, Chydorus, Polyphemus, and Leptodora, the first four being
best known. The more recent students of the group include Olofsson
(1918), Woltereck (1909-1911), Langhans (1911), Kuehn (1908),
Chambers‘ (1913), Taylor (1914), Thiebaud (1913), and especially
Banta and his co-workers, whose work is published in a series of papers
beginning in 1914 and is not yet completed. In all forms the males are
rarely seen and in some species are unknown. As already stated much of
the work concerns the control of sex and the intersex conditions in these
 
forms. There is good evidence that sex ratios and intersex conditions are
both subject to environmental influences.
 
In the order Ostracoda, parthenogenesis was discovered in 1880 by
W. Mueller and by Weismann for a number of genera, it having been
shown that virgin females produced eggs that developed into females;
that is, produced a thelytokous race. No reduction division was found
to occur by Woltereck (1898) or by Schleip (1909) for a considerable
number of forms which they studied and parthenogenesis for these
animals is therefore of the diploid or somatic type. In 1914 Wohlgemuth
studied carefully the reproduction of numerous fresh-water ostracods
and thought they fall into two groups, one of a purely bisexual and the
other of a purely parthenogenetic type, although there are transitional
forms between the two. Other investigators of the Ostracoda have been
Menzel (1911), Alm (1916), and Olofsson (1918). Their chief concerns
have been to describe the facts of parthenogenesis, the relation of the
bisexual generation to the parthenogenetic, the duration of each and
the conditions under which they occur. Not much of importance to an
embryological account is gained from these forms, although SchIeip’s
work on the various species of C3/pris offers perhaps the best cytological
description of parthenogenesis in any crustacean form. His observation
of synapsis not followed by reduction is worthy of note. It may be
remarked that some of the studies of ostracods have taken up the
question, raised for many Crustacea, as to the possible impairment of
vigor of a strain due to long-continued parthenogenesis. Here as elsewhere among the members of the class the general consensus of opinion
seems to be that no loss of vigor can be noted.
 
Mention should be made of the possibility of parthenogenesis in the
third order of the Entomostraca, the Rhizocephala. In the genus Sylon
belonging to that suborder Smith reported his complete failure to find
males and so suspected that parthenogenesis is the method of reproduction.
 
In one order of Malacostraca parthenogenesis has been reported,
INSECTA 333
 
namely in the Isopoda. Vandel (1928) has given an account of geographical parthenogenesis, already mentioned in Trichoniscus. Two
races occupying different localities were described, one bisexual, the
other exclusively parthenogenetic. In some places they may exist side
by side, but mating does not occur between the two races. Physiological
factors tend to keep the two races distinct and to increase the divergence
between them. The parthenogenetic race is found to be triploid in its
chromosome relations. The eggs of the parthenogenetic female do not
undergo synapsis.
 
For both of the two Inyriapod groups, the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda,
cases of suspected parthenogenesis are recorded. Of the former Geophilus
and Lomyctes, and of the latter N opoiulus and Polyxenus, have been
studied. All of these include races which either lack males entirely or
in which they are to be found in certain localities only. In addition
observations were long ago made by Sograff (1882) upon Geophilus
proximus of which unmated females laid eggs that began to develop.
 
Among the spiders accounts of parthenogenesis have been reported
for nearly a century and it may still be suspected, but Montgomery in
1903 concluded that it is “very rare among spiders, and it is probable
that most species do not show it at all.” Since Montgomery’s finding, it
does not appear that any work has been done which successfully establishes parthenogenesis in these animals.
 
Among the mites there is no doubt that parthenogenesis occurs, for
Ewing (1914) described the process in the bisexual Tetranychus telarius
and showed that the unfertilized eggs give rise to males exclusively. It
is arrhenotokous parthenogenesis. Among the ticks, the Brazilian form,
Amblyomma agamum, has been shown by Aragas (1912) to multiply by
thelytokous parthenogenesis.
 
It has been conjectured by Hennecke (1911) that the tardigrade.
M acrobiotus macronyx, has an alternation between parthenogenesis and
bisexual generations.
 
0. I nsecta. Parthenogenesis is of very general distribution in the
insects, having been described in the ten orders. The following table,
compiled in part from Winkler, summarizes the occurrence of the
phenomenon. For references to most of these cases the reader is referred
to Winkler, but a few of especial significance are mentioned following
the table.
 
Aptera
 
M achilzls. Heymons, 1-905 ; doubtful but could find no males.
Forbicina. Verhoeff, 1912; all females, so no doubt parthenogenesis occurs.
334 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
Orthoptera
Mantidae
 
Mantis religiosa Przibram, 1909; induced experimental parthenogenesis,
Sphodromantis not natural.
 
Phasmidad
 
Eurycnema. v. Wuelfing, 1899; three generations of parthenogenetic females in Java.
Hanitsch, 1902; two generations of parthenogenetic females.
 
Bacillus. Dominique, 1896-99; two thelytokous generations of parthenogenesis. Males are rare.
Also Stadelmann, v. Bachr, Cameron, Daiber.
 
Dixippus. Pantel and de Sinety, 1908. Parthenogenesis established.
Schmitz, 1906. Four generations of thelytokous partheno
genesis.
 
Hammerschmidt, 1910. five generations of thelytokous parthenogenesis.
 
Jeziorski, 1918. Four generations of thelytokous parthenogenesis.
 
Phasma. Thurau, 1899. Only females.
 
M onandroptera P .
Raphidems }Bordoz, 1913. arthenogenetic.
Leptinia. de Sinety, 1900. Thelytokous parthenogenesis. Pantel and
 
Ucles also found parthenogenesis.
Phyllium. Bordas, 1898. Suspected parthenogenesis.
 
Locustidae
Saga pedo. Claus-Grobben, 1917. Report parthenogenesis.
Gryllidae
M yrmecophila acervorum. Schimmer, 1909, suspected parthenogenesis.
Tettigidae
fig Nabour and colleagues, 1919-1929. Thelytokous parthenogen' . B .
Telmatemx esis est understood cases
 
Coleoptera. Parthenogenesis is of rare occurrence and most of the older accounts are not trustworthy.
 
Tropiphorus carinatus. Calwer, 1916, reported parthenogenesis.
Otiorrhynchus turca. Ssilantjew, 1906
0. ligustici. Wassiliew, 1909 Thelytokous parthenogenesis.
0. cribricollis. Grandi, 1913
Calandra oryzae. Hinds and Turner, 1911, report parthenogenesis common.
Eggs produce both sexes.
 
Strepsiptera
Stylops}Brues, 1903
Xenos Nassonov, 1910
Elenchus. Muir, 1906
 
Parthenogenesis probable due to morphology of
female genitalia.
IN SECTA 335
 
Thysanoptera
 
Most species are bisexual. Many may multiply parthenogenetically. The1ytokous parthenogenesis is established for Parthenothrips, Anaphothrips, Heliothrips, Taeniothrips, and Liothrips; for a number of others it is probable.
Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis is experimentally shown for Antlwthrips verbasci.
 
Corrodentia
Ectopsocus. Ribaga, 1904. Probably parthenogenetic.
 
Hemiptera
 
Aleurodes. Morrill and Back, 1911. Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis.
 
Trialeurodes. Schrader, 1920. English race thelytokous. American race ar
rhenotokous.
 
Aphididae. Many species of Aphis are known to be parthenogenetic and
types vary. In north they reproduce bisexually during colder
seasons but in south may be exclusively parthenogenetic.
 
Other genera include Callipterus, Ceratophis, M acrosiphum, M yzus, Pemphigus, Rhopalosiphum, Schizoneura, Toxoptera; Chermcs, Pincus,Phyllozera.
 
Coccidae. Many genera of scale insects are described as parthenogenetic
although some cases are not known. Included are Aspidiotus,
Ceroplastes, Cryptococcus, Diaspis, Eriopeltis, Lecanium, Lep1.'dosaphes, Orthezia, Parthenolecanium, Pseudococcus, Pulvinaria,
Saissetia.
 
Lepidoptera
All proven cases belong to family Psychidae or are closely related to it.
Acanthopsyche, Pachythelia, Psyche, Sterrhopteryx, Phalacropteryx, Apterona,
Cochlophora, and Lufia are included. The best known is Solerwbia liclwnella.
Hoffmann, 1859.
 
Solenobia triquetrella. Hofimann, 1859-1869. Usually bisexual. Both bisexual
 
and parthenogenetic modes described. Geographical parthenogenesis.
v. Seibold, 1871; Rolph, 1884; Rebel, _1906; Dampf, 1907; Seiler, 1918.
Solenobia pineti
 
Diptera. Parthenogenesis seldom found in this group.
 
Chirmwmus. Godlewski, 1914. Paedogenesis and parthenogenesis intermingled.
Corynoneura. Goetghebeur, 1913. Rarely parthenogenetic.
M etriocnemus. Picado, 1913. Males few in number.
 
Hymenoptera. Six families show parthenogenesis.
 
Tenthredinoidea
The following show thelytokous parthenogenesis:
Albia fasciala ' Allantus pallipes
 
Allantus canadensis Amauronematus puniceus
336 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
Amauronematus semilacteus Phyllotoma aceris
Caliroa limaama Phyllotoma nemorata
Cimbex connata Pontania capreae
Croesus varus Pontania viminalis
Emprfu abdominalis Pristiphora pallipes
Empria pulverata Pristiphora fulvipes
H emichroa alml Pteronidea spiraeae
Hemichroa crocea Pteronidea tibialis
Nematus erichsoni Thrimax mixta
 
Pachynematus obductus
The following are probably thelytokous:
 
Caliroa aethiops Selandria stramineipes
Phyllotoma vagans Strzmglylogaster lineata
Producing both males and females are:
Ametastegia equiseti Pseudoclavellaria amerinae
The following are arrhenotokous:
 
Albia nitens N ematus luteus
 
Allantus cinetus Periclista albida
Allantus viennensis Phymatocera aterrima
Ametastigia glabrata Priophorus padi
 
Arge, all species Pristiphora conjugate
Caliora annulipes Pristophora crassicornis
Cladius Pristiphora geniculata
Croesus brischkei Pristiphora testacea
Croesus litipes Pristiphora alnivom
Croesus septentrionalis Pteronidea, 15 species
Lophyrus, all species Trichiocampus viminalis
Nematus coeruleocarpus Trichiocampus lucorum
 
Cynipoidea.
 
The following genera contain species which are parthenogenetic and in most
cases the males are unknown, so they are probably thelytokousz
 
Andricus ' Cynips Rhodites
 
Aulacidea Drastrophus Dryophania
Ceroptres Phanacis N euroterus
 
Ichneumonoidea
Chalcids
 
The following are arrhenotokous:
 
Ageniaspis Entedon Paracopidoswnopsis
Anaphmldea Litomastix Pentarthron
Copidosoma M elittobia Pteromalws
Encarsia M icrtmzelus Schedius
 
Encyrtus M icroterys Tropidopria
IN SECTA 337
 
The following are thelytokous:
 
Asphclinus Coccophagus Tetrastichus
Aspidiotiphagus Odtetrastichus Tripoctenus
 
The following contain species that produce both sexes or are uncertain as
to sex although parthenogenetic:
 
Eupelmus I sosoma Scutellista
H abrocytus Paniscus Trichogramma
 
Braconids: All parthenogenetic species are described as arrhenotokous.
 
Ichneumonids: All parthenogenetic species produce mixed broods.
 
Proctrotrupids: Anagrus, Gonatopus are thelytokous. Balus, Paranagrus,
Phanurus produce mixed broods, or first females then later
males.
 
Doubtless many more parasitic hymenoptera are parthcnogenetic.
 
Formicoidea
 
Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis is very widespread among the ants. Many
workers are fertile and lay unfertilized eggs from which males develop.
Some hold the view that both males and females may develop from parthenogenetic eggs. A few cases are recorded in which thelytoky is claimed
to be established. Certainly it is much less common than arrhenotoky.
 
Vespoidea
 
Parthenogenetic eggs of queens and workers develop into males only. Examples are Polistes gallicus, v. Seibold, 1871
Vespa germanica, Marchal, 1896
 
Apoidea
For many bees arrhenotokous parthenogenesis is conclusively established.
Haploid males are so produced, and diploid males probably do not occur,
that is, males produced from fertilized eggs, although that possibility has
not yet been excluded. In a few genera both males and females are produced
 
parthenogenetically but this is not usual. Queens and workers are females
produced bisexually.
 
As is to be seen from the preceding table, a great deal of work has
 
been done upon insect parthenogenesis. It has, however, been to a
large extent concerned either with the general life cycle or with the
cytological and genetical aspects of the problem. Many studies of very
fine character have been made upon gametogenesis and sex determination, and upon the factors involved in the control of sex. Of recent
years the problems which are bound up with uniparental inheritance
have attracted much attention. It must be admitted that much of this
work has not advanced our general embryological knowledge of the
insects to any great extent.
 
Among the many investigations may be mentioned a few to which
338 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
the reader is referred if he would pursue further these aspects of the
problem. The work of Nabours and his collaborators upon the various
forms of grouse locut promises much in the cytological analysis since
grasshopper chromosomes are among the most favorable for study. The
saw flies have been studied especially by Doncaster and by Peacock
and Harrison. Of the aphids and phylloxerans a very careful cytological
study was made by Morgan. An earlier study by Tannreuther is a good
account of the general embryology of the aphids. Parthenogenesis in
the moths is most recently made known to us by the studies of Goldschmidt and of Seiler. Of the Hymenoptera the extensive work done by
Patterson on Paracopidosomopsis will serve to introduce the student
to the relation of parthenogenesis and polyembryony, and the best
detailed account of the cytology of the bee is undoubtedly that of
Nachtsheim. Other investigations have already been mentioned in
connection with other aspects of the general parthenogenesis problems.
 
f. Plants. Among plants a considerable number of cases of parthenogenesis are already known and it is thought of interest to mention the
conditions found there in this discussion although the problems involved
are outside the scope of this work. It is difficult without careful study
among the plants to distinguish between cases of parthenogenesis and
those of the simple vegetative apogamy. Among higher plants haploid
parthenogenesis is exceedingly rare, although several cases have been
described for the lower forms. Haploid parthenogenesis is also described
as generative parthenogenesis by Winkler and as true parthenogenesis
by Strasburger. Diploid parthenogenesis is less common among the
lower forms but more so among the vascular plants. It is due to the
failure of the maturation process to occur to completion. The forms
which are known to be parthenogenetic are as follows:
 
Haploid parthenogenesis: Spirogyra, Ernst, 1918; Vaucheria, von
Wettstein, 1920; Ectocarpus, Kylin, 1918; Fucus, Overton, 1912 (probably haploid); Gastrodia, Kusans, 1915; Oenothera, Haberlandt, 1921,
1922; Datura, Blakeslee and Belling, 1922, evidence from breeding
experiments; Nicotiana, Clausen and Mann, 1924.
 
Diploid parthenogenesis: Chara crinita, Ernst, 1918; Athyrium fel2':cfoemina, var. clarissima, Farmer and Digby, 1907; Scolopendrium
vulgare, Farmer and Digby, 1907; Marsilia Drummondii, Strasburger,
1907 ; Allium odomm, Haberlandt, 1923 ; Atamosco texamz, Pace, 1913;
Calycanthus, Schiirhofi, 1923; Alchemilla, Murbeck, 1901, Strasburger,
1905, Boos, 1917; Wikstroemia, Winkler, 1906; Eupatorium glandulosum,
Holmgren, 1919 ; Erigeron annuus, Tahara, 1921; Antennaria alpina,
Juel, 1900; Chondrilla, Rosenberg, 1912; Taraxacum, Juel, 1904, Osswa,
1913, Sears, 1922; Archieracium, Rosenberg, 1917.
ARTIfiCIAL PARTHENOGENESIS 339
 
II. ARTIfiCIAL PARTHENOGENESIS
 
Of great embryological significance is the phenomenon of artificial
or experimental parthenogenesis. It has been the subject of much of the
work on experimental embryology of the present century and its chief
consideration should be a matter for a treatise on experimental embryology. However, its importance for an understanding of matters which
have to do with the normal embryological process is so great that a brief
account should be included here. For details and bibliography the
reader is referred to the extensive accounts which have been published
by Loeb (see his “Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilization”) and by
Morgan in his “Experimental Embryology.” Wilson has also critically
considered the cytological aspects of the problems concerned with artificial parthenogenesis in “The Cell.”
 
The student should be reminded of the double function which fertilization serves in normal development; the one is hereditary in character
in that fertilization provides the mechanism for conveying the contribution of the male to the offspring. The other is strictly developmental
in that it sets in motion those processes which have been inhibited or
are latent in the egg at the time of maturation. It is with this second
aspect of fertilization that experimental or artificial parthenogenesis
deals. These experiments have sought to imitate and to interpret the
normal processes of development as initiated by fertilization, and
because of that a much clearer understanding of the normal process has
been reached. The experiments have shown that it is possible to cause
the unfertilized egg of a great many animals to develop into larvae
largely under the influence of chemical treatment, although physical
means have also been used to accomplish the same end less perfectly.
 
The work on parthenogenesis is chiefly a monument to the insight
of Jacques Loeb and his analytical experiments have been of the most
importance in solving the many problems involved. However, numerous
other students have contributed to the progress of the work both before
and since his announcement of the discovery that it was possible to
induce eggs to develop artificially. Among the preliminary studies
which antedated Loeb’s discovery in 1899 may be mentioned the paper
of Loeb himself in 1892 in which he studied the effect of addition of
sodium chloride to the sea water in which the eggs of Arbacia developed;
Richard Hertwig’s observation (1896) on the effect of treating unfertilized sea-urchin eggs with strychnine; a series of experiments by
Morgan (1896, 1899, 1900) on the effect of salt solutions on the segmentation of eggs and the formation of artificial asters; the work of
Mead (1896-98) showing that unfertilized eggs of Chaetopterus will
340 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
form polar bodies in certain solutions in which the amount of sodium
chloride is increased. Loeb’s papers upon this subject are many, and to
him is due the chief credit for the developing of our knowledge of the
subject. Ampng those who early worked upon the problem was Delage,
who in a series of papers from 1900 to 1913 added a great deal to the
understanding of this difficult subject; he succeeded in rearing through
metamorphosis the larvae of both sea-urchins and starfish which had
been induced to develop by artificial parthenogenesis. Loeb and Bancroft (1913) brought a parthenogenetic frog through metamorphosis
and found that its sex glands contained eggs. Shearer and Lloyd (1913)
succeeded even better than Delage in bringing parthenogenetic larvae
of Echinus through metamorphosis, and more recently (1918) Loeb has
brought a considerable number of parthenogenetic tadpoles to the adult
stage. It is to be noted, however, that only in the case of frogs has it
been possible to imitate in the laboratory the conditions of nature sufficiently to bring animals developed by parthenogenesis to sexual
maturity. Since Loeb’s work, Bataillon, R. S. and F. R. Lillie, Goldschmidt, Gray, Harvey, Heilbrunn, Herbst, Herlant, and Just are
among the many who have made extensive studies into the embryological phases of artificial parthenogenesis.
 
VVhen one begins to consider the significance of artificial parthenogenesis he is at once led to inquire as to how general the phenomenon
is or how generally it may be expected to be possible in the animal
kingdom. It may well be that eggs are so constituted as to permit their
development without fertilization, at least into the cleavage stages, and
that we are merely unable to understand the requirements in each case
and to devise the correct procedure. A broad generalization of this character is hardly safe, however, for up to the present time the only forms
in which it has been possible to induce experimental parthenogenesis
are those in which the experiment is relatively easy to perform. In
every case the eggs are of the type which is shed freely into the water.
The difficulties of the experimental work which is involved may be the
reason for this limitation or it may be that a deeper limitation is operative so that eggs which are adapted for other kinds of development
may not be stimulated to cleave artificially. Thus far the following
groups have responded to the treatments that have been devised to
induce parthenogenesis artificially. By far the most work has been
done on the sea-urchins. Arbacia, Strongylocentrotus, T0:copneus'es, and
Paracentrotus have all shown themselves excellently adapted to experiments of this type and they have been used for much important work,
especially the first two mentioned. The sand dollar, Echinarachnius,
has proved adaptable for similar experiments. Among the starfishes
ARTIfiCIAL PARTHENOGENESIS 341
 
the eggs of the commoner species of Asterias as well as some of the
more unusual starfishes, as Asterina gibbosa, have been used successfully. It is to be noted, however, that the methods which have proven
most successful with the sea—urchin give but very poor results with
the starfish, and conversely little success has been obtained by applying
the two best methods of inducement for the development of the starfish
egg, namely, carbon dioxide and mechanical shaking, to eggs of the
sea-urchins. The eggs of the frog, Rana fusca, have often been induced
to develop by parthenogenesis, and the most successful treatment has
been again a mechanical one, namely the simple pricking of the surface
of the egg. Various annelids have been studied, especially Chaetopterus,
Amphitrite, Thalessema, but the best results in this group have unquestionably been gotten for the eggs of Nereis. Here again the means of
inducing parthenogenesis is physical rather than chemical, namely, the
subjecting of the egg to heat.
 
A second question arises in attempting an embryological interpretation of the experiments in artificial parthenogenesis, namely, do these
experiments produce animals that are fairly normal. As already pointed
out Loeb’s own studies led him to the belief that “parthenogenetic
larvae may be normal and apparently healthy,” and indeed, he said,
“if the raising of the larvae was not such a tedious process parthenogenetic animals would exist today in large numbers.” His methods have
certainly produced, both in his own hands and in those of other investigators as well, larvae which resemble the normal in every particular,
and Delage, Shearer, and also Fuchs were able to bring parthenogenetic
larvae to adulthood. The chromosome relations of the individuals as
produced, however, have not been made out with certainty as yet and
it is still doubtful whether haploid larvae produce normal adults.
Parmenter (1925) has shown that in the larval and adult stages Loeb’s
parthenogenetic frogs have the diploid chromosome number. The direct
evidence is entirely lacking as to whether the adults produced from
diploid larvae can themselves produce offspring. It should be said that
most investigators are of the opinion that the parthenogenetic larvae
which are experimentally produced are not merely normal in appearance
but that they really are in every respect what they seem, that is, normal
animals.
 
‘Loeb developed a theory of parthenogenesis as a result of his experiments, and what he spoke of as his improved method is based upon
that theory. According to his View the formation of the egg membrane
is the deciding criterion by which the initiation of development may be
recognized. Indeed he traced a causal relation between the formation
of the egg membrane and the subsequent development of the egg and
342 PARTHENOGENESIS
 
attached much more importance to this process than had previously
been done. Membrane formation is the deciding condition of development. Not all later workers have agreed with Loeb in this view, but
unquestionably his explanations have not been out of harmony with
the facts which he observed.
 
The so-called improved method of Loeb for inducing artificial parthenogenesis consists of two steps. Its details as to concentration and
length of exposure must be worked out for the particular species of
sea—urchin eggs used and indeed different individuals will respond
differently so far as the duration of the exposures are concerned. With
regard to these points the method is entirely an empirical one. The
 
procedure as worked out for Arbacia eggs is as follows: Unfertilized
 
. . . . N .
eggs are placed in a sea water mixture containing 2 cc. of T6 butyric
 
acid to 50 cc. of sea water. Apparently any monobasic fatty acid would
 
serve equally well for this purpose but Loeb found butyric to be satis
N
factory for the experiments (2.8 cc. of I5 butyric were necessary in the
 
case of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus eggs). The duration of the exposure must be brief, from 1% to 3 mintues. The eggs are then transferred to normal sea water and after 10 or 15 minutes to hypertonic
sea water consisting of 8 cc. of 2% M NaC1 to 50 cc. of sea water. At a
temperature of 23° the eggs must remain in this solution from 17% to
25 minutes after which they are transferred to normal sea water. The
effect of this double treatment has been shown many times and in many
different localities. A very large percentage, usually about as great as is
obtained from the development of fertilized eggs, go ahead with the
cleavage process and develop to larvae; doubtless the inability to rear
the larvae is not in any way due to the fact that they were parthenogenetically produced.
 
The explanation of this double procedure has been a matter of some
discussion. Loeb believed that membrane formation sets going certain
chemical reactions upon which the future development of the egg depends. These chemical reactions, however, leave the egg in a condition
from which it will not itself recover, and unless a second factor is employed in the process it will disintegrate rapidly. These reactions are
on the nature of oxidations and are at least to a certain extent cytolytic
in nature. The second factor is therefore necessary as a corrective to
regulate the extensive oxidization which is produced by the exposure
to the first solution. Loeb’s conclusion that cytolysis must take place
unless corrected by the hypotonic solution has been questioned by some
ARTIfiCIAL PARTHENOGENESIS 343
 
later experimenters, notably by Just, who has been able to induce the
development of normal plutei of Arbacia by the use of hypertonic solutions alone. The exact preparations of the salts which are used to render
the sea water hypertonic and the durations of the exposure to this
mixture must be regulated with a great exactness if successful results
are obtained. His optimum solution is made up of 22 parts of 2% M
NaCl or KCI plus 78 parts of sea water, although variations from this
mixture were also used. Of course great care was used to control the
experiment in every way necessary. Eggs subjected to a treatment with
this solution form membranes while still in the solution. Subsequently
the eggs are returned to sea water and their development proceeds.
Upon the basis of these experiments Just holds that the treatment with
the fatty acid is not necessary and therefore that the hypertonic sea
water is not serving as a corrective to stop the cytolysis induced by the
unusual step in Loeb’s procedure. He is disposed to relate the activation
of the sea-urchin eggs by this treatment to the egg secretion, fertilizin,
which is given off by the unfertilized eggs into the sea water and which
has been shown to be a necessary intermediary to normal fertilization
with sperm. Just suggests that the activating agent which will accomplish experimental parthenogenesis serves to bind the fertilizin produced
by the egg and thus to complete the necessary cortical changes whic}
 
must take place if development is to proceed. The full explanation or
the artificially induced changes has perhaps not yet been offered with
regard to the experimental facts. However, there is no question that the
 
entire subject has been one of the most successfully studied of all problems of experimental embryology.
 
==Chapter VI Paedogenesis And Neoteny==
 
A series of conditions is known that have to do with the early sexual
maturity and reproduction of certain animal forms which otherwise
retain their youthful characteristics. These are to be taken up under
the general heads of paedogenesis and neoteny although not all the
cases included come under a strict definition of either of these terms.
They occur in a great many widely scattered groups of the animal
kingdom and present a great many variations some of them so wide
that they are scarcely to be recognized as of related processes. When
such diverse conditions appear, it goes without saying that confusion
is to be found in the literature dealing with them. Regarding the processes
under consideration in this chapter exactly such confusion is found,
some writers using the terms loosely and failing to classify with sharpness the cases cited.
 
The biogenetic law comes into the discussion for the reason that one
may regard a particular phenomenon as recapitulating past phylogenetic
conditions, or he may look upon the animal showing it as exhibiting
neoteny, at least of the characters in question, and perhaps generally. Thus the familiar axolotl which is the sexually mature, unmetamorphosed Amblystoma is the usual example of neotenous development,
but it is also cited by the proponents of recapitulation as explained by
the general progress in development of the Proteus, Necturus, Amblystoma, Salamandra series of urodele recapitulation. Most of the cases
of this kind, however, are concerned with adult conditions quite as
much as with those of immature forms and therefore would seem to be
rather outside the scope of the present discussion.
 
The general subject of neoteny also calls up the problems of heterochrony, by which is meant a disturbance of the synchrony of development. That is, if one might take the normal series of developmental
time stages with each organ in its proper relation to the others as a
standard, representing perhaps the phylogenetic series, then any departure from this standard would be spoken of as heterochrony. (See
also Chapter III, Part Two, for discussion of heterochrony.) Similarly,
the sequence of embryonic events when disturbed, as in neotenous
development, involves heterochrony. The principle is one with an
 
344
PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTENY 345
 
interesting history, recalling especially the work of two investigators,
Oppel and Keibel, although many others have contributed to it, some
independently and others in collaboration with Keibel in the publication
of his famous “Normentafeln zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere.” Oppel began this study comparing the different developmental
stages of different animals and arranging them in tabular form to show
the comparative progress of the most important organs of vertebrates.
He thought himself to have found similar ontogenetic stages and to be
able to compare the young stages among themselves as well as the
adults among themselves. The recapitulation doctrine found support
in his Work in that the young stages of higher forms are similar to the
older stages of the lower animals. Departures from the series thus
established were to be attributed to heterochrony. Keibel as a result
of his studies and tables concluded that the time of the appearance of
an organ is dependent upon the time at which it will be required to
function. Thus the order of appearance of organs in a developmental
series is of itself of phylogenetic significance. But Keibel did not recognize the biogenetic law as valid in these cases.
 
Another early student of heterochrony in vertebrates was Mehnert,
who devoted his attention particularly to the relation of the subject to
recapitulation. His view on this matter is of interest, for he thought
that only the early development of an organ had recapitulatory value in
any precise fashion, whereas in later stages the processes are quite
schematic. He studied also organs which undergo regression as well as
those whose development is only progressive. Heterochrony he found
to be due (1) to precocious development of an anlage, (2) to rapidity
of growth, (3) to rapidity of histological differentiation, and (4) to
abbreviation or omission of intermediate stages. Retardation of these
processes as well as their acceleration call forth heterochrony.
 
Heterochrony is thus seen to deal with parts of organisms rather
than the animal as a whole and to-show the effects of disturbances of
developmental rate and rhythm upon the entire animal only through
its effect on its component organs. At first thought paedogenesis might
be considered as but very indirectly concerned with a matter such as
this, but a reconsideration of the facts easily brings out a very clear
relation, for we find paedogenesis to mean merely that, in an animal
exhibiting this phenomenon, the organs of the body which have to do
with reproduction have been much accelerated in development, while
at least some other parts of the body have failed to keep up the pace
set by these organs; or in some cases we must think that the reproductive
organs and related parts have retained their customary pace while the
others have been very considerably inhibited.
346 PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTENY
 
During the present century many investigators have contributed to
the knowledge.of the general subject. It will perhaps serve as an illustration to point out the importance of Stockard’s very extensive study
on the development of Fundulus, particularly with regard to the effect
of changes in the rate and to the various means by which abnormalities
may be produced, notably by temporary arrests of development.
 
It is thus clear that the matters which are the subject of this chapter
really constitute but special cases of heterochrony. In assigning to these
phenomena as a causal factor the disturbance of the speed of development, we bring them all into one category. It is sometimes difficult to
decide whether one organ has undergone a retardation of development
or whether another is accelerated with respect to the normal and so it
has not always proven easy to separate sharply the processes which are
involved. By some, especially Giard, Chun, Kollmann, and others, fine
distinctions have been drawn, the need for which is not entirely clear if
we but relate the different processes to heterochrony.
 
By paedogenesis is meant sexual reproductive maturity in a pre-adult
stage; it is of two types, parthenogenetic and bisexual. As a special form
of paedogenesis, Packard has given the term “chrysallogenesis” to a
case in which the pupa of Chironomus has been found to lay eggs.
 
By progenesis is meant the permanent retention on the part of the
somatic structures of the conditions reached at the time when sexual
maturity is attained.
 
Neotenous organs have youthful characters although the animal
possessing them has developed its adult condition. Or, to put it in
another way, animals with neotenous organs retain the ancestral larval
conditions in the particular structures which show neoteny.
 
Disogeny is the “sexual maturity of one and the same individual in
two different conditions, between which a metamorphosis with retrogression of the sex products occurs” (Chun).
 
It is true that these definitions savor of dogmatism and of course
require much elaboration. It would seem, however, that neoteny and
progenesis are not far apart and that paedogenetic animals may easily
exhibit disogeny. It will perhaps be best for the purposes of our present
discussion if we limit ourselves fairly sharply to the cases which illustrate
neoteny and paedogenesis. Of these there are certain classical ones which
should receive especial attention. There are only a few of these cases in
which the animals as a whole are spoken of as paedogenic or neotenous,
but when we come to consider the organs to which the latter conception
in particular may be applied, the illustrations abound and important
explanations of obscure phenomena have been worked out on this basis.
 
Of all the cases undoubtedly the axolotl is the best known. As already
PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTENY 347
 
stated, Amblystoma tigrinum occurs in two forms, the one of which is
technically immature, although it is sexually active. This paedogenic
form was first described from the lakes about Mexico City and was
thought to belong to the genus Siredon (S. lichenoides). The relation of
this form to the well-known salamander was only discovered accidentally
in Paris in 1865. Sexual maturity is reached at six months of age and
sex products are shed. This is paedogenesis, for the animals have not
yet lived long enough for metamorphosis.
 
However, metamorphosis may never occur. In many high mountain
lakes axolotls live their entire life without undergoing the necessary
 
 
Fro. 218. External views of an axolotl (A) and an Amblystoma showing difierences of
gills. body form. and leg development.
 
changes to transform them into Amblystoma. The reason for this is not
clear. If the animal be fed on thyroid, if it be forced gradually to leave
the water and adopt a land life, if it be transferred from deep to shallow
water, from cold to warm, or if it be brought into the presence of certain
chemicals it will undergo metamorphosis promptly, but the causal
mechanism is not yet understood. If it remains in the same environment
as that in which it became paedogenetically mature, however, it will
live its entire life without metamorphosis. This is neoteny, for the
larval characters are retained long after the normal time.
 
The neotenous animal differs in a number of important characters
from the type form. It has large external, red gills with gill slits, its tail
is long and broad but flattened laterally so that it is adapted for swimming, and the body features are those of a water-living animal. Internal
conditions likewise show immaturity, the skull bones, for example,
never becoming properly developed. With metamorphosis the animal
348 PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTENY
 
undergoes a very extensive transformation. It loses its gills, its legs
develop for crawling upon land, and the tail becomes rounded and
tapering. It is now a land salamander resorting to the water only for
egg laying.
 
The neotexiy of axolotl is thus facultative, for with the proper conditions the animal does not remain neotenous but becomes an adult
Amblystoma. Other urodeles, the perennibranchiates, correspond in
their adult structure very nearly to axolotl and may be looked upon as
permanently neotenous. Typhlomolge, of the underground streams of
Europe and Texas, Proteus, Necturus, and Siren, belong to this group.
 
Another illustration from the chordates is the tunicate group called
Appendicularia or Larvacea. These animals are small tadpole-like
creatures averaging about half a centimeter in length and living perhaps
one year. They swim in the surface waters of the sea of all parts of the
world and the young have been taken in plankton between February
and summer, but their development is almost unknown. There is no
evidence of reproduction by budding, gemmation, or other modes of
asexual type such as are found in the Salpidae, for example, nor is any
metamorphosis known. Development is direct and the small appendicularia correspond in a general way to the tailed larvae of the ascidians;
that is, they retain the tail portion of the body with its typical chordate
characteristics which is lost in the metamorphosis of the more familiar
forms such as Molgula, Ciona, Cynthia, etc. Hence the group has been
named Larvacea and the animals have been looked upon as larval
forms which have become sexually mature. They have also been looked
upon by some as primitive forms from which other Tunicata have been
derived, and, it must be noted, by some they have been thought of as
larvae of some adult form which is pelagic. In any case the sex glands
are developed and the products shed by the animals as known to us,
and we have a clear case of neoteny.
 
Among the insects a number of cases are known, and some of these
are among the most important of all for they illustrate parthenogenetic
paedogenesis. The example usually given is M iastor, a cecidomyiid fly,
but certain species of the genus Cecidomyia also show it. The case of
M iastor has long been known as an illustration of paedogenesis, and is
given by Hertwig along with certain other Diptera as an example
proving his statement that paedogencsis is parthenogenesis in an
immature organism. As is already seen, this statement is much too restricted, for the term paedogenesis is of equal application to cases in
which inheritance is biparental.
 
In Miastor paedogenesis occurs normally during the spring, early
summer, and autumn, according to Hegner who has been the principal
PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTEN Y 349
 
student of this genus in America. No reproduction takes place during
the winter, and the process is interrupted in midsummer by the appearance of male and female adults. The larva of Miastor possesses two
ovaries in the tenth and eleventh segments. In each are thirty-two
 
oocytes each with nurse cells and follicular epithelium. After a time
one of these oocytes with its nurse cells and its follicular epithelium is
separated off from the rest of the ovary and in a distant part of the
body grows and develops at the expense of the tissues of the mother
larva. This process is repeated until five to seventeen separated growing
oocytes are thus produced from one mother larva. Then one division
takes place, the polar body which is given off divides again and both
products degenerate. Parthenogenetic cleavage follows with chromatin
diminution as previously described in connection with the history of
the germ cells, the pole plasm is segregated and the embryo gradually
takes on its characteristic form. No oviducts are present in the mother
larva nor is there provision for the escape of the young thus paedogenetically produced. They escape by rupturing the body wall of the mother
larva, which is left to die. After the production of a number of generations in this manner, the last larvae pupate and emerge as normal adult
males and females.
 
In the spring of 1869 Grimm found a pupa of Chironomus laying
eggs. To this form of paedogenesis in the chrysalis Packard gave the
name chrysallogenesis, although the differences from other types of
paedogenesis are so slight as to make the retention of the term of doubtful necessity. In the autumn other pupa change to flies without laying
eggs and these adults are more prolific than the spring pupae were.
The process was described as a seasonal phenomenon depending upon
temperature.
 
Pacdogenetic reproduction has also been reported for the Tenthredinidae, the saw flies, thus extending this phenomenon to a second order
of the insects, the Hymenoptera. '
 
The molluscs show one case of neoteny in the shell-less snail, Stamedorsia verrucosa, which according to Cuénot reproduces long before true
adulthood is reached.
 
Among the trematodes paedogenesis is found in the most striking
form. Two excellent illustrations occur in the suborder Monogena, and
conditions in the Digenea offer material for interesting speculation. In
the former group the genus Gyrodactylus exhibits what is perhaps the
nearest approach to the old preformationist theory of “emboitement”
to be found in the animal kingdom. The young individual comes to
sexual maturity before it is born and produces young in its own uterus.
350 PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOTENY
 
This process is repeated and as many as four generations have been seen,
one within the other.
 
The second case of this group is that of Polystoma integerrimum originally described by Zeller in 1872. The embryo hatches in the water
and swims Freely. It seeks for a young frog tadpole which it must find
within twenty-four hours or die. If one is found it creeps over the surface
until it finds the branchial opening, which it quickly enters; it undergoes
metamorphosis, and passes down the alimentary canal to the rectum
and thence to the urinary bladder. Here it remains for three years to
become sexually mature. However, it may happen that the young worm
has attacked a very young tadpole which still has external gills. In this
case it remains in the gill chamber where nutriment is abundant, grows
rapidly, and becomes sexually mature in the short space of five weeks.
It does not then pass further along the alimentary tract but dies before
the metamorphosis of its host. It differs in its structure as well as its
life cycle from the usual form, in that it develops but one male gland
instead of several, and it lacks entirely the intromittent organ, vagina,
and uterus, or they are developed only to rudimentary vestiges. It is
of interest to note that Polystoma ocellatum is structurally quite similar
to the paedogenetic P. integerrimum.
 
Among the digenetic trematodes the life cycle of the liver-flukes involves questions which are of interest in this connection. The main facts
are well known and are referred to in several chapters of this work. In
both rediae and cercariae reproduction may take place and daughter
rediae, and daughter cercariae may be produced. If it can be shown
that these daughter forms are produced from eggs, either parthenogenetically or bisexually, then this is a case of paedogenesis. However,
it has lately been shown for some flukes that the germ balls from which
the daughter larvae develop are budded off asexually and never undergo
any chromosome reduction (F. G. Brooks), so that for these forms at
least it cannot be said that paedogenesis occurs in the flukes. It has been
the usual view, however, that there is here the production of parthenogenetic ova, and hence paedogenesis.
 
Of the examples usually recognized, the final one is that of the lobate
ctenophore, Bolina hydatina. Here the cydippid larvae become sexually
mature, producing eggs and sperm. Fertilization follows and the eggs
develop in the regular manner. The larval gonads subsequently degenerate, metamorphosis takes place, a new set of gonads appear, the
animals again attain sexual maturity, producing eggs and sperm, this
time as adults.
 
These are the classical cases, and they illustrate both neoteny and
paedogenesis, both parthenogenetic and bisexual.
PAEDOGENESIS AND NEOT ENY 351
 
In addition to these, experimentally produced delay or acceleration
of development are well known. Frogs transferred as larvae to alpine
heights where the winters come early have remained in the larval condition over the winter. High temperatures hasten sexual maturity.
Brackish water or fresh water will often hasten the maturity of oceanic
forms. Hunger in some forms and overfeeding in others result in heterochronic growth. Termites which are fed in a certain manner mature
very early while the wings are still undeveloped and eyes have not yet
appeared (Grassi). Parasitism may be looked upon as a strong factor
accelerating maturity because of the abundant food supply.
 
It may be observed that there have been omitted many cases of
larval budding and other forms of asexual reproduction such as may be
so commonly found, for example, among jellyfishcs, liver—flukes, bryozoa,
and tunicates. These cases, though not a far step from the types discussed in this chapter, are not properly considered here, for paedogenesis
and neoteny are matters of sexual reproduction. It is admitted that in
some cases, as already shown for the 1iver—flukes, the distinctions are
hard to draw, but for the sake of clarity it is usually thought wiser to
adhere to the definitions given.
 
Thus far we have discussed this subject from the point of view of
the entire organism. There still remains the matter of neotenous organs
rather than organisms which deserves mention before the subject is
closed. This phase of the subject was developed by Garstang and by
Bolk and recently discussed by De Beer. There are many instances in
the animal kingdom of forms having organs that retain embryonic
characters although the organism as awhole has passed on to a new adult
condition. Organs of this kind are neotenous. In the succession of
somatic stages the organs in question have fallen behind the others, in
short they have become distinctly heterochronic. Bolk has discussed
the features of man which resemble the structure of embryos of anthropoid apes, assuming that the latter‘are nearer the ancestral forms of
structure. Among the features of man which show resemblance to the
embryonic structures of the ancestral types, for which he uses the term
foetalization, are the relatively high weight of the brain, the retention
of the embryonic cranial flexure with the resulting erect posture as Bolk
thinks to have demonstrated, the position of the foramen magnum, the
late closure of the skull sutures, the flatness of the face, lack of hair on
the body, and others. Bolk’s study of cranial flexure and human posture
comparing both adult and ancestral conditions is particularly interesting. He finds as a result that the flat face as compared with the elongated
muzzle of other mammals is largely responsible for the trend of human
evolution with regard to vision and other special senses, the character
352 PAEDOGENFSIS AND NEOTENY
 
of the teeth and of the anterior end of the alimentary canal. And all
the characteristics which are distinctly human are clearly neotenous
and related to the embryological derivatives from the ancestors.
 
One other illustration, from those given by De Beer, may be cited to
show the part that neoteny may have played in evolution. It is a comparison between the important structural characteristics of adult insects
and larval myriapods. The larva of Iulus has a head composed of six or
seven segments, an elongated segmented body, the first three metameres
of which bear pairs of legs whereas posterior segments bear only rudimentary legs at the time of hatching or shortly thereafter (Metchnikoff).
These features are quite insect like, in that the insect head has six or
seven segments, the thorax three, each bearing a pair of legs, and the
abdomen of about ten segments, legless or bearing appendages only as
a larva. Insects are known among the lower orders whose structure
corresponds more closely with this immature myriapod than does the
structure of insects of the very specialized higher orders, and it is sug—
gested by students of these matters that the ‘insect derivation passes
through these intermediate forms from neotenous larvae at least not
unlike those of the myriapods.
 
From these cases it would appear that the study of neoteny from the
standpoint of embryology offers a productive field of quite a new order
for investigations and that the conclusions reached from researches of
this kind may profoundly affect our ideas of phylogeny.
 
==Chapter Vii Polyembryony==
 
By polyembryony is meant among zoologists the production of
multiple embryos from a single egg. (This definition does not apply to
botanical nomenclature.) The number of individuals produced from a
single egg ranges from hundreds as in the parasitic Hymenoptera down
to two, although in the latter case the condition is usually known as
twinning, and not all types of twins are properly thought of as polyembryonic.- Polyembryony occurs very widely distributed through the
animal kingdom in groups which are totally unrelated to each other.
Because of this wide distribution the literature to which reference can
be made in this connection is really very extensive and the significance
of some of the cases extends beyond the realm of embryology. Of the
numerous investigators who have studied the question only a few need
be mentioned here, but it may be noted that a reference to their work
will serve as an introduction to the much broader literature which is
not included in this discussion. Patterson has summarized the knowledge
of polyembryony in a paper in Volume II of the Quarterly Review of
Biology and it is suggested that the student consult this paper in beginning a more extensive study of these problems.
 
Patterson recognized three types of polyembryony: “ (1) experimental
polyembryony, or the production of multiple embryos by artificial
means; (2) accidental or sporadic polyembryony, or the occasional production of multiple embryos in the species which is typically monembryonic; (3) specific polyembryony, or the habitual production of
multiple embryos in a given species.” The general student of comparative embryology is interested in the last type much more than in
the first two, although cases of the first two throw much light upon
many fundamental problems of organization of the egg and embryo
and offer a very stimulating field for the experimental embryologist.
Many types of eggs whose normal development includes no hint of
polyembryony can be induced to produce double monsters and even
complete embryos by experimental means.
 
Cases of occasional or sporadic polyembryony are recorded for coelenterates, cestodes, annelids, echinoderms, arthropods, and vertebrates. Perhaps because the latter group is so much more studied, there
 
353
354 POLYEM BRYONY
 
have been more cases reported for the vertebrates than for the others
and, as Patterson points out, it is here that the occasional identical
twins of the human species should be classified.
 
Specific polyembryony, to which our attention is drawn as the
special problem of the comparative embryologist, is found in the following groups of animals: flatworms, bryozoa belonging to the Cyclostomata, earthworms, parasitic Hymenoptera, and the mammals, especially
as illustrated by the armadillo. It is of more widespread distribution,
however, than is indicated by these groups, but here are included the
more important cases.
 
An inspection of this list is sufficient to show that polyembryony has
no phylogenetic or taxonomic significance, for the groups are too widely
separated and too diverse in structure to admit of an interpretation of
this kind. Moreover, the structural differences both of adults and
embryos in these various groups are so great that it is not possible to
look for the causes of the phenomena in any simple embryological
process common to all. Doubtless in the final analysis all these processes
have a common underlying causal factor which is bound up with the
innate protoplasmic organization of the egg substance.
 
As Patterson has pointed out, it is really not much more strange for
an egg to give rise to two embryos than to one. The remarkable fact is
that a new organism can be produced from an egg at all, and those
qualities of the living substance which make possible its reproduction
are basic to the one case no more than to the other. We must recognize
that specific polyembryony is as much a characteristic of certain animals
as is the formation of a coelome. At a certain stage in development there
occurs a series of events which lead perhaps to two buds, or more, from
each of which individuals grow. Very little thought is necessary to
convince oneself that the directive forces behind this type of budding
are not much more astonishing than those which cause, in the other
case, the archenteron to bud out to form an enterocoele.
 
A. THE Causns or POLYEMBRYONY
 
Of the explanations of polyembryony, probably the most prevalent
is the theory of blastotomy, according to which the blastomeres of the
cleaving egg become separated in the 2-, 4-, 8-cell stage or later, and
lead entirely independent existences, each arriving at length at the
stage of a completely formed embryo. This theory is the basis of the
familiar explanation of the origin of identical twins in human beings,
that the blastomeres in the 2-cell stage become separated and each
gives rise to an embryo. This is a view with few observational data to
support it, but it may be presumed to find considerable support in the
THE CAUSES OF POLYEMBRYONY 355
 
experimentally induced development of isolated blastomeres. Numerous
experimental devices are well known by which blastomeres can be
separated. To mention only two of these devices as examples, it is
possible more or less successfully to cut apart the blastomeres with a
knife or delicate thread drawn about the egg, or to keep them apart by
subjecting the eggs to calcium—free sea water in which the blastomeres
do not cohere to one another. In some of these experiments the isolated
blastomeres have lived and developed for a time; in others they have
produced partial larvae (ascidians etc.); and in others they have developed into whole larvae (amphioxus, Cerebratulus). But in forms
where direct evidence for blastotomy is possible none has been found
which forces one to this view for cases of polyembryony. As will be
seen presently, the facts in the armadillo make the explanation based
on blastotomy untenable there, and render it highly doubtful elsewhere.
 
A second explanation takes the form of an assumption that polyovular
follicles, that is, follicles containing several ova fused together, may
provide the mechanism by which polyembryony is accomplished. It is
only necessary to say that the evidence for this supposition is entirely
insufficient and the theory may now be regarded as abandoned.
 
In the budding theory we have what is perhaps a closer correspondence
with the observed facts, although it is more of a descriptive explanation
than an attempt at developmental analysis. After cleavage there arise
in the blastulae or gastrulae of lower animals or in the blastocyst of
mammals certain areas or “growing points” which are essentially buds.
If a single one is produced it becomes the apical or head end of a normal
embryo and assumes dominance over the remaining parts. If two are
formed they are the beginnings of twin embryos. Similarly secondary
buds may be formed and four or more embryos result, depending upon
the number of buds. The facts observed in the armadillo will be seen to
harmonize well with this explanation.
 
This ‘theory of budding has been criticized rather severely, particularly by Assheton, on the grounds that budding cannot take place unless
there is a stock from which the buds may arise and the presence of a
stock Assheton claims was not demonstrated in the cases to which the
theory was applied. Rather he interprets the described facts as cases of
fission. The blastocyst of several mammals, for he was particularly considering the theory as applied to the armadillo, he described as undergoing direct fission into two embryonic rudiments. As a matter of fact
the fission hypothesis does not differ from the idea of budding in relation
to the facts as described, but is primarily a redefinition of them, for in
both cases the embryonic vesicle is regarded as divided into several
primordia, each of which is the beginning of a distinct formative area
356 POLYEM BRYONY
 
and consequently will give rise to a separate embryo. Whether the
emphasis is placed upon the embryonic mass which is thought to bud
or upon the separate areas which arise from it as would be the case
in fission does not seem to involve any particular difference in the result
nor to carry the explanation of the environmental processes much
further toward a final analysis.
 
As an explanation of the process a physiological interpretation must
be called on. Stockard has pointed out that if a developmental pause
occurs at the critical moment in the formative stages of an embryo, a
series of consequences ranging from simple malformation up to the production of double monsters or even two individuals may result. He
applies this conception to the explanation of polyembryony, supposing
that the reason for the loss of dominance of the first formative region
of the embryo and the subsequent ascendency of the primary and
secondary buds is connected in some way with the developmental pause.
He points out that in the armadillo a period of physiological isolation
intervenes at one of the critical moments, making possible the four
resultant buds. Certain observed facts bear out this conclusion. In any
case within the growing germ the isolation of formative areas occurs
and from these formative areas the multiple embryos are produced.
 
An obvious connection exists between the phenomenon of polyembryony and that of metagenesis which involves at least the alternation
of one sexually produced generation with an asexually produced one. It
is usually the practice to limit alternation of generations to the lower
forms of animal life and to say that it does not occur in higher forms,
including the vertebrates. Stockard, however, speaking in terms of the
budding hypothesis, has pointed out the fact that the embryonic mass
of cells may be looked upon as one generation, namely the one produced
from the fertilized egg, and that it is completed when it becomes a
stock from which other buds, that is growing points, begin their development. This point of view has its application even to mammals
whether only a single organism results or several as in the case of the
armadillo. Here the blastocyst would be regarded as the sexually produced individual and the buds which give rise to the four young as
those asexually produced from it.
 
Stockard says, “From a general biological standpoint the adult body
of higher animals may be very correctly considered to be derived from
a sexually produced embryonic axis, the stock which gives rise by an
asexual method of budding to the various special organs. The vertebrate
body is thus composed of a group of different zooids, the organs. There
are seeing, hearing, excretory zooids, and so on, comparable to the
zooids of a siphonophore colony.
OBSERVED CASES OF POLYEMBRYONY 357
 
“Alternation of generations is here considered a phenomenon, not
limited as is generally taught to lower forms, but occurring throughout
the animal kingdom.”
 
If the blastocyst is to be looked upon as a sexually produced individual from which arises asexually another or several others of a
second generation, it is suggested that in this fact lies the explanation
 
fiG. 219. The development of the ovicell in Crista remosa. (From Patteron, after
Harmer.)
 
A, external view. B, median longitudinal section of young ovicell. fol., follicle formed
from polypide-bud; ov., ovary; ovi., oviccll.
 
of the difliculties that have met every attempt to homologize the early
development of the mammals with that of the lower vertebrate classes.
These differences have been discussed in Chapter X on the formation
of the mammalian embryo; they constitute a problem of major importance to the comparative embryologist.
 
B. Onsnnvnn CASES or POLYEMBRYONY
 
We may now devote ourselves to the consideration of the groups of
organisms in which specific polyembryony has already been noted to
358 POLYEM BRYON Y
 
occur, bearing in mind the different types of explanations that have
been offered and attempting to discover how the facts conform to the
suggested explanations.
 
flatworms. Among the flatworms are many cases which depart from
the usual methods of reproduction. Of these some which do not fully
fit into the classification have been described
from time to time as polyembryony. There
is one flatworm in which polyembryony undoubtedly occurs, however; it is the cestode
Taema echmococcus, or Echmococcus coenurus
as it is sometimes known. This small tapeworm produces eggs which develop into
the usual hooked embryo, the onchosphere,
and these in their turn produce a cyst which
becomes the bladder worm or cysticercus.
As is usual in the further development
of a cysticcrcus, an invagination from the
outside wall of the bladder into its cavity
develops a new scolex and neck region
which will later become inverted and form
the new tapeworm. However, the matter
is complicated in this case in that many
scolices may be produced within a single
bladder by the budding process, and even
secondary bladders which produce multiple
scolices in their turn are described. Thus
the encysted worm may grow to an enormous size to endanger the life of the host and
oftentimes bring about its death.
 
Bryozoa. Polyembryony occurs in the
cyclostomatous bryozoa belonging to the
Gymnolaemata of the Endoprocta. These
animals live in colonies made up of zooecia
 
fiG 220- Section through which are in general tubular with densely
 
a follicle of Cnaza remosa show- - mg primary embryo (1) which calcareous walls. The circular orifices of the
 
§>ré>dt:)c1I(IiL(zisecorZ<I‘i‘ary erlgnbgnis zooecia give the group their name. At the time
son, Xftei’ H$fi;e,_,r°m 3 e ' of the breeding season a curious specialized
zooecium develops which is called the oecium
 
or ovicell. In this is developed the young embryo. Fertilization of a
rather unusual sort having been successful, the oecium serves as a brood
chamber about the developing embryos and larvae. The primary embryo
undergoes a process of budding, and secondary and tertiary buds are
EARTHWORM 359
 
produced all of which may develop into larvae, as many as 150 being
on record from a single egg. They develop into ciliated larvae and each
is capable of forming a new colony upon escape from the oecium.
Earthworm. In the earthworm of the species Lumbricus trapczoides
(Helodrilus caliginosus trapezoides) polyembryony results in the production of twins, a process which by Kleinenberg was regarded as
universal for the species, but by Vejdovsky was held to be abnormal.
It is due to a process of fission of the embryo. The cleavage of the egg
 
 
C D
 
fiG. 221. Twinning in the earthworm, Lumbncus trapezoides. (From Patterson, A, B, C.
after Kleinenberg.)
 
A, Section of young twin embryos. the right one being the more developed. B, Double
embryo, in section. C, Double embryo about to break apart. D, Type of double monster
formed when embryos fail to separate.
 
is much modified from the typical spiral form of the annelids and indeed
is variable. A blastula is formed, the endoderm and mesoblast cells pass
into the cavity and the entire mass begins to elongate. Across the
equator of the elongating mass a transverse furrow now appears from
one side. As it deepens, the embryo is divided into two hemispheres
held together by a few ectodermal cells only. Each half is destined to
form one of the twins. Differentiation, gastrulation, and the completion
of the internal organization go ahead while the worms remain connected.
But at length they separate after a series of rotations which breaks them
apart, except in a certain proportion of cases which become double
360 POLYEMBRYONY
 
monsters of various degrees of union. Thus from the single egg twin
earthworms are produced.
 
In two other genera of oligochaetes double monsters have been described, and one infers that the twinning phenomena, though rare, may
occur in a number of families. These cases were Tubifea: tubifex, found
by Welch, Tubzfex rivulorum by Penner, and Sparganophilus eiseni by
Hague.
 
Parasitic Hymenoptera. In the parasitic wasps we find some of the
most important and complex cases of polyembryony in the entire
animal kingdom, and certainly here the results of the process are exemplified in the most striking manner. In a single brood hatching from
one parasitized caterpillar hundreds of individuals may be seen to
issue all developed from one egg. Our knowledge of polyembryony in
insects dates from the work of Marchal in 1898 and of Silvestri in 1906.
Although a number of important points still remain to be satisfactorily
cleared up, a number of investigators have contributed to this subject
since then. Among them are Martin (1914), Patterson (1915, 1917,
1921, 1927), Hill (1922, 1923), and Leiby and Hill (1923, 1924), as well
as others. The important genera studied include Litomastix truncatellus,
Ageniaspis fuscicollis, several species of Copidosoma, Paracopz'dosomopsis floridanus, and three species of Platygaster. The most recent study
is that of Parker (1931) upon the braconid, M acrocentrus. Undoubtedly
many other forms of insects show polyembryony, but the ones mentioned
include the more important cases studied.
 
The manner by which a single egg produces multiple embryos in
these forms is perhaps best understood by beginning as Patterson has
done in the paper earlier referred to with a description of Platygaster
hiemalis, a parasite of the Hessian fly, which usually produces two individuals from one egg. From this comparatively simple case we have
a gradual increase in complexity which at the end of the series is only
incompletely understood, but the simpler cases at least are suggestive
of the methods by which the more complicated probably develop.
 
In this species the parasite lays from four to eight eggs either in the
egg or young larva of the host. If fertilized, the egg nucleus divides
twice, producing two polar body nuclei; these are not passed to the
outside of the egg but remain in the cytoplasm where after a time they
come together to form a large polar nucleus called the paranucleus.
With the fusion of the male and female pronuclei the egg becomes
differentiated into two separate regions. The cleavage nucleus and
cytoplasm surrounding it become cut off from the remainder and
constitute the embryonic region, for only from it comes the material
which will go into the formation of the developing embryos. The rePARASITIC HYMENOPTERA 36 I
 
mainder of the egg containing the paranucleus and its own cytoplasm
entirely surrounding the embryonic region functions to absorb and
 
fiG 222. Polyembryonie development of Platyoaster hwmalw (From Patterson, after
Leiby and Hill )
 
A. Egg of four hours, showing sperm head and first maturation division B, Egg showing two polocytes. and both pronuclei C, Egg with pronuclei in comunction and polar
nucleus D. Embryo, two polar nuclei and a. parasitic body showing four nuclei E, Enclosed within a cyst formed from tissue of the host are two embryonic bodies each surrounded by trophamnion F. A later stage in the development of two embryos G, A
thirteen-day-old polygerm in section, showing several embryos.
 
elaborate the tissues of the host for the nourishment of the young
embryos and it is therefore spoken of as the trophamnion. In this
species, although it is not characteristic of all, the host tissues form a
362 ‘ POLYEMBRYON Y
 
cyst wall around this developing body which then is spoken of as the
parasitic body.
 
The paranucleus as development proceeds divides amitotically twice
and the daughters distribute themselves in the trophamnion surrounding the embryonic region. The zygotic nucleus of the embryonic region
divides first into two, then four, embryonic nuclei. Thereupon, the
embryonic region becomes constricted and presently separated into
two regions, each provided with two nuclei, and the trophamnion with
its paranuclei also divides into two corresponding regions. The two
halves of the parasitic body thus differentiated remain held together
within a single cyst of host tissue, but develop independently. Four,
eight, and sixteen nuclei arise from the division of each of these germs,
as they are called, and these arrange themselves into the form of a
typical spherical blastula, the cell walls being cut off around each
nucleus. The remainder of the development is unimportant, for the
process characteristic of these blastulae go forward through regular
stages. There is produced from each a new individual which hatches in
the next year.
 
In another species of this genus, P. vernalis, eight embryos are regularly developed. Here the process has a fundamental similarity to that
just described, but the details of development differ. The parasitic body
develops a number of embryonic nuclei surrounded by an appropriate
amount of cytoplasm and a cell membrane. Each of these becomes a
germ for the production of the later embryo and the entire mass is
spoken of as a polygerm. It happens that the more complex cases were
studied before the development of Platygaster was understood and
some of the problems that were not clearly worked out would now
probably be more easily followed through. It is known now that in
Copidosoma gelechiae in the formation of the polygerm many primary
germs are produced in a manner similar to the eight of Platygaster
vernalis. These separate germs of the last polygerm stage all divide and
give rise to two which develop into separate embryos.
 
Leiby and Hill believe that in Paracopidosomopsis, which is even
more complicated, a secondary germ divides to form tertiary ones before
the larval differentiation begins.
 
Armadillo. The final case of polyembryony to be discussed is perhaps
the one in which the greatest interest lies. The Texas nine-banded
armadillo Dasypus (Tatusia) novemcinctus normally produces four
young from a single egg, the quadruplets being identical in respect to
sex and to most of their morphological features. The work on the
armadillo from the standpoint of polyembryony is of rather recent
date, Fernandez concluding in 1909 that it occurs in a South American
ARMADILLO 363
 
species Dasypus hybridus, and Newman and Patterson in the same year
publishing the beginning of their important studies on the Texas species.
Subsequent publications by these authors working independently have
made available an account of the development of this form which is
practically complete. The processes have been shown to be identical in
respect to all important features in the two species which have been
studied. The reader is referred to Chapter X for a discussion of the
formation of the blastocyst in mammals.
 
In the armadillo as in other mammals, a monodermic blastocyst is
formed which becomes differentiated into a trophoblastic portion and
a formative portion, the inner cell mass. Then from the inner cell mass
the endoderm is differentiated off, the remainder becoming ectoderm.
Up to this point the blastocyst has remained free in the uterine cavity,
but now attaches to the uterine mucosa. Attachment takes place directly
over the embryonic ectoderm and the Trdiger forms at this point; then
the inward growth of the spherical endodermal mass begins which
brings about the so-called inversion of the germ layers. Within the
ectodermal mass the formation of the ectodermic vesicle marks the
beginning of the amniotic cavity. Above it an extraembryonic cavity
is formed in the mesoderm. With progressive development the shift of
the ectodermal cells takes place, resulting in the formation of the em~
bryonic shield with its thick ectoderm and the true amnion above it.
In this stage the first sign of polyembryony makes its appearance, for
from opposite sides of the ectodermal vesicle thus formed blunt projections extend laterally. Patterson called these primary buds. By this
time that portion of the trophoblast which has not become involved
in the attachment to the uterine wall disappears and the yolk sac
endoderm is directly exposed in the uterine cavity. The two primary
buds now divide each to form two secondary buds, making in all four
buds which are rudiments of the four embryos subsequently to arise.
Although they arise in this bilateral fashion and develop in the right
and left halves of the uterus respectively, they later come to occupy
positions that are about equally spaced from each other.
 
Meanwhile the vesicle grows, and the endoderm of the yolk sac, including those portions with which the embryonic ectoderm of each bud
is in contact and which will form the gut endoderm of the embryo,
faces the uterine cavity. The anterior ends of all the embryos point
toward the apex of the common ectodermal vesicle, that is, toward the
original amniotic cavity, and the entire vesicle may now be spoken of
as the common amniotic vesicle. The entire structure now grows very
rapidly, especially that portion of it which originated from the trophoblastic knob or the Trdger. This growth finally comes to occupy most
364 POLYEMBRYONY
 
of the space in the fundus of the uterus. The further history is especially
concerned with the embryonic buds. Their posterior ends lengthen out
with the growth of the vesicle and finally unite at a point opposite the
original attachment and from their point of union the umbilicus later
arises. The common amniotic vesicle by this growth procedure is left
 
fiG. 223. The development of the blastocyst of the armadillo. (After Patterson.)
ec., ectoderm; en., endoderm; icm., inner cell mass; mes.. mesoderm; tr., trager; tro.,
trophoblast; u.. uterus.
 
as a small structure at the lower apex, in contact with each bud, while
most of the remaining portion of the cyst mass with its developing
embryos is derived from the growth of the Trdger. The buds meanwhile
continue their growth, each forming a primitive streak, which is a substitution for the embryonic shield as described for other mammals.
The further development of the embryos and the subsequent changes
which lead to the production of the four foetuses need not be traced
ARMADILLO 365
 
since it is simply a problem of organogenesis and of the steps normally
following. The relations which are necessary for the understanding of
 
fiG. 224. A, The uterus and entire blastocyst of the armadillo showing paired origin
01' embryos. B, Half-grown foetuses spread out from uterus wall. (After Patterson.)
 
the polyembryonic condition all grow out of the budding processes of
the embryonic vesicle and are completed with the establishment of the
four embryos. There are many interesting problems connected with
366 POLYEMBRYONY
 
the later stages from the standpoint of later embryology and hereditary
correlations of the characters of the four offspring as well as from other
points of view, but the special problem of polyembryony is explained
by these earlier stages.
 
C. EXAMPLES or DOUBTFUL POLYEMBRYONY
 
Two other cases which resemble polyembryony in some respects
should be mentioned. As a matter of fact there are some departures in
each of them which do not justify their inclusion with this type of
development.
 
Among the trematodes the egg of Fasciola hepatica, the sheep fluke,
is fertilized in the body of the adult fluke, makes its way down the bile
duct and out of the intestine of the sheep and hatches when it rains
as a tiny ciliated larva, a miricidium. Entering the intermediate host,
the snail, the miricidium becomes a sporocyst and within it parthenogenetic ova appear which develop into rediae, the next larval form.
Within the body of the rediae the process may be repeated but at length
cercariae are developed which escape from the snail and bring about
the reinfestation of the adult host. This case has been called polyembryony by some, but by others it is regarded as paedogenesis, for
here the new larvae are said to be produced not asexually but from
parthenogenetic ova, a difierence in method which, if true, would
seem to be fundamental. However, the reservation must be made that
if the germ masses from which the new larvae arise are not ova, but are
produced asexually (as F. G. Brooks believes, having found no maturation phenomena or other egg—like behavior), then we have to do here
merely with asexual reproduction, and not even paedogenesis,
 
A second case which at first thought suggests polyembryony occurs
in the tunicates. Among the Thalaceae as represented by the genus
Salpa it has long been known that two forms of individuals are to be
expected, one a solitary form and the other a colony which is usually
found as a chain of individuals. The first of these develops asexually,
although produced from a fertilized egg. The second is known to be
budded ofi’ from a stolon which grows out from the asexual individual,
and among the colonial forms some at least are sexual, producing the
eggs and sperm which in their turn start the cycle over again. The genus
Dolielum is rather more complicated than Salpa but it seems to illustrate
the situation quite well and it is here that the type of development of
particular interest to us may be said to occur.
 
In Doliolum an oozoid is developed from the fertilized egg and it
reproduces asexually. By some it is regarded as a larval zooid, and
certainly it has not yet reached its final character. If it is correct to
EXAMPLES OF DOUBTFUL POLYE-MBRYON Y 367
 
regard the oozoid as a larval form, this case is very closely akin to
polyembryony. From the ventral posterior part of the oozoid a proliferating stolon is formed as a protrusion of the ectoderm into which
the mesoderm penetrates. From the stolon buds arise which break loose
in a very immature condition and Worm their way upward and dorsally
over the surface of the parent. Since the number given off from the
ventral stolon is less than the number later found on the dorsal process,
it is assumed that the buds must divide en route, and some evidence of
this process has been found. Arrived at the dorsal side of the oozoid,
the buds attach themselves to a posterior process of the test which
arises as a middorsal projection (occasionally spoken of incorrectly as a
dorsal stolon). These bodies attach themselves in three longitudinal
rows to the outgrowth. The two lateral rows of buds are known as
trophozooids or gasterozooids and their only function is to nourish the
colony. The dorsal row of buds undergoes metamorphosis into several
kinds of zooids. Some become phorozooids or nurse zooids, and according to some investigators they produce from a ventral stalk buds which
are protogonozooids or primary sex buds. These latter either by budding
or fission produce the sexual animals, the gonozooids or blastozooids, in
which with further development sex organs are formed and the cycle is
completed. Here an alternation of generations occurs in which there are
three asexual generations and one sexual generation in one cycle. Whether
it is to be regarded as polyembryony depends upon the interpretation
of certain stages. It is very complicated in the extreme, and is at least
close to true polyembryony.
 
 
==Chapter VIII The Determination Problem==
 
A. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT or PROBLEM
 
A problem which has run through the entire history of embryology
and is yet a live question at the present time concerns the extent to
which the egg represents a fixed and definite system whose course is
set when its development has begun. This is the determination problem.
It first became a live issue during the controversy between the preformationists and the epigenesists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
and was even in that crude form an attempt to solve the question of the
organization of the egg. The one school held that development was
 
simply an unfolding of an organism already present in an infolded con—'
 
dition; that is, organization was complete and development brought
forth nothing new. The other held that the egg was unorganized and
that everything in development was new. The history of embryology
since these crude beginnings, at least of that part of the science which
has concerned itself with the earliest stages in ontogeny, has been
an attempt to make clear the manner in which the organization of the
egg becomes manifest. Except for historical reasons it is not necessary
to trace the course of these studies nor would it be possible except in
a much more extensive treatment of the subject than is given here, for
the literature is voluminous. It is not even possible to summarize in a
short discussion the work which has been done. All that can be attempted
is to bring together briefly the lines of work which have been responsible
for the present conceptions in regard to determination.
 
Two sets of facts confront the student who would consider the determination problem. Neither bears directly upon the question at issue,
but both serve to limit it. In the first place an egg goes through certain
steps with surprising uniformity and produces an individual which is
structurally very complex and very much differentiated. It is organized
in the highest conceivable degree. In the second place modern genetics
has shown that the egg to begin with possesses in the mechanism by
which the genes are controlled and distributed a type of organization
likewise complex in the extreme; and there is no doubt that this mechanism operates to produce the conditions found in later ontogeny. Yet
differentiation is a matter of the cytoplasm of the cells. The repeated
 
368
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 369
 
mitoses do not affect in a differential fashion the elements of the nucleus
and it is clear that the nucleus contains in the chromatin the non
differentiating material, the germ plasm, while the cytoplasmic portion
of the cell is the basis of specialization and is indeed the somatoplasm
which gives rise to all the differentiations later seen in the course of
ontogeny. Between these two sets of facts must lie the third set, little
understood and often little appreciated at the present time. Almost
nothing can be offered in the way of explanation as to the method by
which the gene mechanism produces its fundamental effect upon
differentiation. The gene mechanism concerns heredity, that is, by it is
explained the similarity existing between generations, but as yet its
study has offered little which enables us to understand its relation to
the differentiating soma. It was earlier said that heredity was the
central problem of biology. Differentiation is certainly a central problem
of development, and, let it be said, at the present time one of the most
elusive. The questions of differentiation and of determination have
dominated a surprisingly large part of the embryological work of the
last century.
 
These two questions are really two aspects of the problem of organization, for differentiation is the manifestation of the operative mechanism
of the egg as modified by extrinsic factors. To discover the extreme to
which this operative mechanism is already present in the early stages
and to which it gives a definite “set” to the differentiating embryo is
the aim of the work on determination. If differentiations become visible
early and are little modified by extrinsic factors with the result that
the course of development is orderly in a high degree, we say that the
egg is strongly determinative. But if the egg retains its embryonic
plasticity and easily adapts itself to environmental disturbances, that
is, is easily modified by extrinsic factors, it is said to be indeterminative
or of the regulatory type. If differentiations manifest themselves early,
little regulatory capacity is retained by the egg. In other words, the
capacity of the egg for regulation is inversely proportional to the
progress of differentiation.
 
It must be borne in mind also in considering the problem of differentiation (and hence of determination) that the chemico-physical organization of the cell limits the conclusions which may be reached. Differentiation manifests itself through colloidal materials. The chemistry of the
protoplasmic system is so imperfectly known that whatever conclusions
are reached regarding these problems must be subject to revision when
a better understanding shall have been attained, for example of the
phenomena of gelation which plays a very important part in the physical
expression of mitotic phenomena. It has been shown by the studies of
370 THE DETERMINATION PROBLEM
 
Conklin and of others that the position and size of the spindle are
matters of great importance in differentiation. Yet the physico-chemical
factors which are involved in spindle behavior have not yet been adequately analyzed. Other problems of physico-chemical nature similarly
affect our"conclusions. It is not too much to say that in spite of the vast
amount of embryological research differentiation and its mechanism is
one of the least understood fields of biology.
 
It has been pointed out that the function of cleavage is to sort out
the materials of the egg into cells so that differentiation may progress.
The uncleaved egg represents all of the materials present, although not
necessarily all that are later to appear. Yet the progressive development
of the organism in its usual course at least as indicated by our present
knowledge depends upon getting these materials separated from each
other. It does not follow, however, that this sorting-out process of
cleavage is the cause of the subsequent development. Rather there must
be a fundamental underlying mechanism of organization, the manifestations of which are the cleavage phenomena. Primarily determination
concerns itself with the manifestations of these underlying methods of
organization. It seeks for evidence of pre—1ocalization of areas or substances within the egg or even of an early promorphology which gives
visible expression to the underlying mechanism. Some of the questions
involved may perhaps be formulated in the following manner: Are there
special structures or substances or fundaments which exist in the egg
at the very beginning of development and which are independent of
each other and of other parts of the egg? If so, how are they formed?
Must all appear at the same time, or may some appear later on? Conversely, are the definite structures of the embryo never independent of
each other? Are the parts always influenced by the whole of which they
are constituents? Or finally, are there some eggs which are determinative
in their character and others which are not, or are some parts of the
individual embryo determinative and other parts not? Perhaps all these
questions may be said to depend most largely for their answers upon
this one. At what time and from what sources do differentiations begin
in the embryo? It may be noted that the answers to these questions
are not the same for all organisms.
 
B. CLASSICAL THEoR1Es or THE NATURE or DEVELOPMENT
 
Historically there have been a number of theories developed in
response to these questions. They represent the various forms which
the answers of different investigators have taken and must be considered
from the standpoint of the information available when they were
formulated. One of them was the theory of organ-forming regions of
CLASSICAL THEORIES OF THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT 371
 
Wilhelm His (1874). This is the doctrine that definitely localized areas
perhaps even in the unsegmented egg are the forerunners of the'organs
and parts of the embryo, that “the germinal disc [of the chick] contains
the preformed germs of the organs spread out over a flat surface, and
conversely . . . every point of the germinal disc is found again in a
later organ.” Ray Lankester supported His in his views, saying that
it was quite possible for the cell to “contain already formed and individualized, various kinds of physiological molecules. The visible process
of segregation is only the sequel of a differentiation already established
and not visible.” Whitman as a result of his work on Clepsine concluded
that the embryo is predetermined, even if not predelineated. Rabl and
van Beneden likewise were among the early supporters of the view that
even in the unsegmented egg an organization of protoplasmic particles
which predetermines the development of the embryo is present. In the
bald form in which this doctrine was proposed by His it can scarcely be
accepted, however, and as a matter of fact His had no great amount of
observational and experimental evidence on which to base it. The study
of cell lineage offers what of evidence there is in support of this doctrine
but even at best it does not force as rigid an interpretation as His placed
upon it. Many authors have denied it in its entirety and there are few
who do not criticize it.
 
Another form of answer to the question of determination is the
theory of organ-forming substances, according to which the materials
within the egg rather than the areas which they occupy receive the
chief attention. Here again it is obvious that not all materials within
the egg, even though they be definitely localized, are formative. Yolk,
pigment, oil globules, and other inclusions in the cytoplasm are definitely
located in many eggs, yet clearly are not formative. In some instances
visibly differentiated substances within the unsegmented egg have been
shown to have no formative function. At least they have been displaced
by pressure or by centrifugal force, and normal embryos have nevertheless resulted. Yet in other forms the materials of the egg have been
traced in a precise manner to the organs of the embryo. Surely a principle
of determination is here involved which is too important to deny because of a particular formulation of a doctrine. Perhaps the importance
of the visible organ-forming substances has been overemphasized and
these are but manifestations of a more fundamental mechanism. Yet
in very many eggs the mechanism undoubtedly exists, and later researches have certainly demonstrated the essential correctness of the
principle involved in the conception that the egg is not without an
organization before cleavage begins which conditions the future course
of its development.
372 THE DETERMINATION PROBLEM
 
As a result of the early work on cell lineage by Whitman, Rabl, van
Beneden and others the former view that blastomeres were indifferent
both in position and significance was gradually replaced by another
to the effect that the cleavage pattern was in the nature of a mosaic,
and that a blastomere occupied its particular place because of the
material contained in it, that is because of its mosaic character. The
views were supported not only by the extensive studies on cell lineage,
but also by the experiments of Roux, Chabry, Conklin, Wilson, and
others. These experiments are discussed later in this chapter.
 
The mosaic theory of development, if understood in a sense not too rigid
to take account of the fundamental plasticity of living protoplasm,
certainly expresses one of the underlying truths of embryology. One
may, however, raise the question of the manner and the time of origin
of the mosaic work and also whether it is so fixed that it is not subject
to the regulatory processes of which the organism is capable.
 
The question of regulation brings up yet another theory of historical
significance which We owe to Driesch. His terms prospective significance,
prospective potency, his equipotential system, are all well known to
those who are familiar with the history of the determination problem.
By prospective significance of a cell he meant the actual destiny in the
developmental process. By prospective potency he meant the possible
fate which the cell might attain. Prospective potency includes the sum
of the different developmental possibilities. As the result of numerous
experiments, Driesch reached the conclusion which he thought of
general application, that the egg is essentially an equipotential system,
for the cells of a blastula of a sea-urchin, for example, are of uniform
material and might be interchanged like balls in a pile without affecting
the result in the development of the embryo; in other words that the
fate, the prospective significance, of a particular blastomere is a “function of its position.” Driesch’s theory was in opposition to the mosaic
theory of development according to which the fate of the blastomeres
did not depend upon their position alone but upon their organization.
It was based upon the conception current at the time when work on
cell lineage first rose to an important place. Pfliiger had held that the
egg and its blastomeres were homogeneous throughout and that cleavage
simply multiplied the units out of which diiferentiations were later to
arise. This view was also favored by Oscar Hertwig. Driesch, who
although chiefly interested in philosophy, set himself to carry out
experiments in development upon which certain philosophical decisions might be based, made this conception the starting point of his
theory of development.
 
Some experimental evidence is at hand upon which to a certain
MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 373
 
extent the theory of Driesch may be based, while there is also evidence
upon which the mosaic conception may rest. On the one hand certain
eggs possess a high degree of regulatory capacity and are hence indeterminative in their cleavage. On the other hand certain other eggs
show the marks of differentiation appearing at a very early stage in the
 
development of the egg; these eggs possess but slight regulatory ability
and are hence determinative in character. Between the mosaic type
 
and the regulatory type no sharp boundary line can be drawn. Rather
there is a gradation from one extreme of the series to the other. If we
sum up the results of these researches we may arrange the animal series
from the regulatory to the mosaic forms in about this order: amphioxus,
teleosts, mammals, nemerteans, urodeles, anura, ctenophores, annelids,
molluscs, arthropods, nematodes, and ascidians. But it is to be noted
that purely regulatory and purely mosaic types do not occur. In this
we are merely emphasizing what has been said before, that the time at
which differentiation appears is the real criterion upon which we may
recognize the differences between determinative and indeterminative
types of eggs. In other words if differentiation sets in early the regulatory
capacity of the egg is correspondingly reduced. Conversely, eggs with
high regulatory capacity show little evidences of early differentiation.
 
C. EVIDENCE BEARING ON DETERMINATION
 
The present status of opinion in regard to the determination problem
has been reached as the result of two different lines of evidence. One of
these is the morphological study of normal embryological stages. The
other line of evidence embodies the results of many experiments which
 
have sought an insight into the fundamental nature of developmental
problems.
 
1. Morphological Evidence
 
Of the morphological evidencesthat some type of determination
exists to some extent in all eggs reference should perhaps be made first
to the contributions of genetics. The breeding experiments of this
century have very clearly shown the existence of hereditary units
within the germ cells. Although we do not by any means identify these
units with visible structures in the egg cell nor do we know how they
express their influence upon the developing organism, yet any theory
of particulate inheritance (that is inheritance based upon the presence
of organized particles within the germ cell) is, in so far as it is justified,
evidence in favor of a morphological basis of determinate development.
This evidence bears out the conclusion stated above that, although
374 THE DETERMINATION PROBLEM
 
the regulatory processes may dominate in certain types of eggs, there
are none which are purely regulatory.
 
The first signs of differentiation in the developing egg have to do with
the general features of polarity, symmetry, and pattern of the egg.
From these’ general features more detailed diiferentiations with respect
to polarity, symmetry, location, and pattern of the constituent cells
and parts of the embryo arise and later the differentiations of tissues
and the beginning of organs. Development is thus progressive, and
differentiation, at first relating only to the most general features, gradually passes to specialized details. Since polarity, symmetry, and cleavage
pattern are general in character their importance is sometimes overlocked by the student, yet very little thought is required to convince
one that they are really basic. Our morphological knowledge with regard
to the development of polarity and symmetry has been discussed in the
chapters which have to do with the different types of cleavages and
reference should be made to those chapters. These observations have
been checked by many experiments of the greatest importance and it
will perhaps suflice to refer to these experiments under the second line
of evidence as listed here.
 
Morphological studies of the cleavage pattern, as has already been
indicated, became the foundation for the mosaic theory of development
in the studies at the hands of the students of cell lineage. It early became
clear that certain types of cleavage were predominately determinative.
Some eggs with bilateral cleavage, certain types of eggs with superficial
cleavage, those with spiral cleavage, with disymmetrical, and even an
occasional form having radial cleavage, such as Strongylocentrotus, were
shown at that time to be determinative in their development. Most
forms with radial cleavage, some with bilateral, and even occasional
examples of eggs with spiral cleavage show the regulatory type, however.
For a discussion of these the student is referred to the chapters on
cleavage types.
 
2. Experimental Evidence
 
The second line of evidence which bears upon the problem of determination is perhaps no more important than the morphological evidence
but is certainly not less so and is much more recent. It is obtained from
those special experiments* which have to do with this problem.
 
‘ As pointed out in the chapter which deals with history of embryology, the present
is the period of acperimental embryology. Much of morphological character remains
to be learned, but nevertheless the dominant note in embryological research of the
present day is the experimental one. It is now sought to discover those underlying
principles which account for the form changes by which the structure of the organism
is produced rather than simply to give a descriptive account of those characters.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE 375
 
The first series of experiments of significance for study of determination is concerned with the localization of the median plama. Here as with
the other experiments to be summarized the student is referred to
Morgan’s critical discussion as well as to the original papers which
describe them. It would be impossible in a work of this size to give
even a brief account of the experiments themselves. Reference can only
be made to those which seem most significant.
 
The matter of the localization of the median plane is of importance
because it indicates the early determination of symmetry and polarity
on the part of the egg. According to some the polarity of the egg may
be traced back even into an ovarian condition, and some believe that
the type of symmetry is determined in the egg cytoplasm before fertilization. Although the evidence of these relationships seems good in
some cases it has not been made clear how much the appearance of
symmetry_in these early stages is related to the cleavage plane or the
symmetry of the embryo. No mechanism for bringing this about has
 
Experimental embryology has seemed to cover a wide range of topics and the results
of the investigations in this field are scattered throughout many journals. There
have been but few attempts to bring this material into the scope of a single volume.
The first section of Korschelt and Heider’s “Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbcllosen Thiere” deals with the experimental results obtained
up to that time (1902). In 1909 Jenkinson published his book entitled “Experimental Embryology” and summarized much of the work available at that time.
The contribution to experimental embryology most important now, however, is the
volume by Morgan entitled “Experimental Embryology” and published in 1927.
Morgan has promised a further volume which will deal with such topics as growth,
reflex reactions, tropisms of the larvae, the influence of environment upon the embryos,
the source of energy of development, etc. It is to be hoped that this volume will
appear at no distant date.
 
In spite of the diversity of topics which have engaged the attention of experimental embryologists it is possible to classify them into a few divisions. (1) The early
students of this field were specially interested in the discovery of the effect that
external factors have upon the developing embryo. Among these factors are gravitation, mechanical agitation, electricity, light, heat, atmospheric pressure, osmotic
pressure, and the chemical composition of. the medium in which development takes
place. (2) In addition to this the growth problem, the problems centering around
fertilization, have occupied much attention during the present century. Something
of the nature of these problems is suggested in the section of this book which has
to do with artificial parthenogenesis, although this is but one of the many topics
that have been studied. (3) finally a great deal of attention has been given by
experimental embryologists to those problems which are concerned with the forrna—
tive changes of the egg. These factors are internal in their nature and seem to take
the experimenter further in his attempts at the analysis of the innate, vital character
of the organism than do the other problems enumerated. The experiments which
bear on the problem of determination come under this head. Those experiments
which have sought light on this problem fall chiefly within a few animal groups,
namely: the ctenophores, some hydromedusae, the nematodes, annelids and molluscs,
echinodcrms, ascidians. It may be remarked that not only are these the forms which
seem to have yielded results most capable of analysis but they are also the forms
upon which it is easiest to experiment.
376 THE DETERMINATION PROBLEM
 
been demonstrated. In many cases where a relationship between the
first cleavage plane and the planes of symmetry of the later embryo
have been made out it is thought that the point of entrance of the
spermatozoon and the path traveled by the sperm pronucleus in approaching the egg pronucleus determine the position of the plane.
Suggestions have also been made that the pressure of the enveloping
membrane of the egg or pressure from the oviduct or other external
factors may be related to the position of the plane. Certainly the causal
character of such factors has not been demonstrated. It may be said,
however, that so long as the possibility remains of a relationship for
example at the point of entrance of the spermatozoon it is necessary
to assume that the symmetry of the embryo goes back to a predetermined symmetry of the egg.
 
The question of a relationship of the median plane and the first
cleavage plane arises in the history of embryology in relation to the
frog egg. As long ago as 1851 Newport had reported that the two coincide, and from that time the question has been often discussed. In
the frog egg at the time of cleavage there is already present a bilaterality
as shown by the presence of the gray crescent. The real question involved
in determining the symmetry relationships is: what in the uncleaved
egg causes the material to take the position of the gray crescent, and
why does the first cleavage plane cut through the middle of it? Experiments have shown that its position is determined after fertilization and
that any meridian of the unfertilized egg may become the median plane.
After fertilization the meridians are not equivalent in this respect,
however, for usually the crescent forms opposite the point of entrance
of the sperm. A long series of experiments can be cited to show that in
nearly two-thirds of the cases the first cleavage plane does coincide
with the middle of the gray crescent. It is clear, however, that if 30 per
cent or more of the eggs fail to show this relationship the mechanism of
determination is by no means a fixed one. In other amphibia the experiments of Jordan indicate that the first cleavage plane is at right angles
to the axis of the egg of Diemyctylus, and Spemann has found for Triton
that the second cleavage plane coincides with the median plane of the
embryo. Of course it is immaterial from the standpoint of determination
as to whether it is the first or second plane which shows the relationship.
In the teleost fishes according to the work of Morgan and of Clapp no
definite relation between the second plane and the median plane of the
body can be made out. For the sea-urchin a considerable amount of
evidence is available. In Toxopneustes, Wilson and Mathews related the
appearance of the first cleavage plane to the entrance of the spermatozoon, and Boveri held that it coincided with the median plane of the
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE 377
 
embryo. In the eggs of Echinus, Driesch found the second plane to
correspond to the median plane and Runnstrém assumed that the first
cleavage coincides with the median plane. Recently Von Ubisch has
performed a very ingenious experiment by which certain portions of
the egg were stained with intra vitam stains; in three species of seaurchins he obtained results which are in agreement. He was able to
demonstrate no fixed relation between the planes of symmetry and
planes of cleavage, but found some evidence that the first cleavage
plane more nearly coincides with the median plane. On the whole for
the sea-urchins perhaps this is the most acceptable conclusion. In his
study of ascidian embryology Conklin determined that the first cleavage
plane is the median plane of the embryo, and that in Cynthia its position
is indicated before the pronuclei meet. In the nematodes, according to
Boveri’s work on Ascaris, the third cleavage plane of the dorsal cells is
the median plane of the embryo. In Nereis, Just has found that the
second cleavage plane usually corresponds to the median plane of the
embryo but the first cleavage plane is determined by the position of
the entering spermatozoon. Insect eggs are distinctly bilateral so far as
their orientation is concerned, the position of the egg as laid corresponding to the symmetry of the mother’s body and definitely indicating the
position of the embryo in the egg. For the chick and pigeon Bartelmez
has held that bilaterality is present even in the small ovarian eggs.
 
A second series of experiments related to the problem of determination
has sought to discover to what extent localization of germinal areas is
present before cleavage, using as a method the development of egg fragments. Eggs of Cerebratulus were out along definite planes by Wilson,
Zeleny, and Yatsu. Cuts were made both before and after fertilization
and development followed without difficulty. The cleavage of the fragments in general corresponded to the type of cleavage of the whole egg
but upon a much reduced scale. It was not found to make a difference
from which part of the egg the fragment was taken. The experiments
show that either factors which determined cleavage were not yet
definitely localized at the time of maturation or the egg is capable of
very extensive regulation. According to Yatsu if the operation occurred
between the formation of the first and second polar bodies the cleavage
was entirely regular but if it was after the second division irregularities
developed in some of the cases. Wilson experimented with fragments
of the egg of Dentalium. Here the presence of the yolk lobe complicates
the result. If the yolk lobe is entirely present and only the apical portion
of the egg cut off, the resulting larva is nearly normal; likewise an entirely
symmetrical division of the yolk lobe seems not seriously to interfere
with the course of development. If the cuts are made in any other
manner, however, irregularities appear. The ctenophore Beroé when out
into fragments in the unsegmented condition produces in some cases
partial embryos and in others whole ones depending on whether the cut
is symmetrical or oblique. Driesch, Morgan, Yatsu, and fischel have
experimented with this form. With sea-urchin eggs conflicting results
have been obtained from experiments with the development of fragments. Taylor and Tennant using accurate methods of cutting with a
micro-dissecting machine obtained small pluteae from the developing
fragments which were like the normal ones. But Harnley obtained
evidence that the materials of the egg were qualitatively different.
finally experiments on the development of parts of Triton eggs have
been performed by Spemann and Baltzer. Non-nucleated fragments,
obtained by separating the egg by means of a hair tied around it, developed but rarely and the nucleated fragments produced dwarf larvae
which did not live long enough to undergo metamorphosis although
normal in most particulars.
 
An interesting result of these experiments is the conclusion that the
entrance of the sperm into the egg is not of itself sufficient to start
development, for, if an egg is cut just after the penetration of the sperm
so that the female pronucleus is in one half and the male pronucleus in
the other, it is the half containing the sperm pronucleus that develops
but not the other. Something else besides the mere initiation of division
is accomplished by the entrance of the spermatozoon. The cleavage of
egg fragments demonstrates that for many types of eggs the pattern
develops along with the mitotic figure.
 
Another series of experiments has sought to discover to what extent
it is possible for a whole embryo to develop from an isolated blastomere.
In some few eggs it is possible to cut the blastomeres apart at the time
when they are most widely separated from each other as the first cleavage is closing. In others it has been found possible to separate them by
shaking them in a tube of water, or by squirting them from a pipette.
Again eggs of echinoderms permit the easy separation of the blastomeres
if they are kept in calcium-free sea water while the first cleavage is
taking place. Isolation experiments have been performed on sea-urchins,
the hydroid Clytia flavidula, Cerebratulus, amphioxus, teleost fishes,
Triton, and the frog, and in all these cases whole embryos were obtained
from the isolated blastomere. On the other hand blastomeres of ctenophores, molluscs, and ascidians when isolated give rise to half embryos
only. It would seem that this emphasizes again the distinction between
determinative and regulatory eggs.
 
The question arises as to whether the development of the isolated
blastomere is strictly comparable with the results that would be obtained if the material of the missing portion of the egg were present.
Experiments have been performed in which the single blastomere has
been allowed to develop in contact with the material of its sister cell,
which owing to various kinds of injury was prevented from any active
participation in the normal result. Experimenting upon the frog, Roux
injured one blastomere with a hot needle but did not kill it. He thought
that the subsequent development of the uninjured blastomere in contact
with the inactive one was in the nature of regulation and that gradually
the missing portion of the embryo was restored. This conclusion seems
doubtful as there is now good evidence that the resulting embryo is more
nearly one-half than a whole. Later studies have shown that, in experiments of this kind, if the plane of the first cleavage goes through the
middle of the gray crescent a half embryo results. If the plane is parallel
to the gray crescent and the injured blastomere is the one which contains it, nothing recognizable is produced from the opposite one. But
if the opposite blastomere is injured the one containing the gray crescent
will produce the anterior end of the embryo. Even if the cleavage plane
is at other angles the blastomere containing most of the gray crescent
will produce an anterior end.
 
McClendon working on the tree frog, Chorophylus (Pseudacris),
sucked out the injured blastomere to determine whether its presence
has any effect. In his experiments the remaining blastomere produced
a normal whole embryo of one—half size. Injuries to one blastomere of
the egg of Ascaris led to the conclusion in the experiments of Stevens,
of Boveri, and of Schleip that each individual cell contains the factors
which are responsible for its own development; in short, that there is
little self-regulation on the part of the blastomeres. The egg of Cyclops
after the injury to one blastomere has been studied by Fuchs and by
Miss Jacobs. The evidence goes to show that for this egg the contact of
the injured blastomere with the uninjured one does not materially
affect the result of the development of the latter. This results in a
partial embryo. In this same connection the experiments of a number
of investigators, of whom Hegner and Reith are typical, on the effect
of injury to the eggs of insects should be mentioned. Insect eggs apparently may be among the most determinative with which we have to deal,
for these experiments indicate that different cytoplasmic areas on the
surface of the egg are fixed in their prospective significance even before
the cleaving nuclei with their surrounding cytoplasmic islands migrate
to the surface and they have no great powers of readjustment. There is
indeed a considerable degree of independence in the development of the
respective parts. If the injury is not too severe to a certain localized
portion of the egg the remainder will go ahead and develop without much
dependence upon the injured portion, but will produce only that part of
the embryo which was to be expected. Reith found that, if the posterior
end of the egg of the house fly is injured, the parts normally resulting
from the anterior end will develop. If the anterior end is the location of
the injury, a larva without a head end develops, and in some cases injury to the middle portion of the egg was not so severe but that both
anterior and posterior organs developed.
 
Hegner’s experiments on the eggs of the chrysomelid beetles Calligrapha multipunctata and Leptinotarsa decemlineata are Well known.
Here the posterior end of the egg is the location of the pole plasm which
Hegner found to pass into the germ cells in development. By injuring
this region with a hot needle he was able to secure embryos without
germ cells. Evidently the cytoplasmic regions in the eggs of these insects
are very early set aside to produce definite parts of the embryo. Yet it
must not be inferred that the regions in question retain no powers of
adjustment. As cleavage progresses the possibilities of readjustment
are lessened but are not entirely lacking.
 
A very important series of experiments carried out in the laboratory
of Spemann on the embryos of Triton have shown that the future of
certain ectodermal areas in the gastrula are much modified by their
position. The method by which these experiments were carried out was
that of transplanting a portion of the ectoderm by means of a micro-pipette
from one portion of the body to another and studying its relationship
to the development of the neural plate. From this study it appeared
that the presence of the endomesoderm beneath the surface of the
ectoderm is immediately necessary for the neural plate to be formed.
Spemann and his collaborators have shown that the prospective ectoderm
is capable of producing entirely different organs upon transplantation.
For instance ectoderm from the top of the young blastula or gastrula
implanted on the lip of the blastopore and carried to the interior may
become notochord, mesoblastic somites, pronephros, or perhaps other
organs. Ectoderm taken from a slightly later stage, that is, after the
closure of the blastopore, if carried into the mesoderm becomes mesodermal somites; if carried into the endoderm goes to the formation of
the archenteron. It should be pointed out that particular organs which
differentiate from given substances may through the process of rearrangement be induced in an entirely different direction from that
which their normal determination indicated. Throughout the animal
kingdom there are many cases which serve to emphasize the difference
between the determination of an organ and the actual differentiation
which sometimes results from the modification of normal processes.
What is shown by such cases, however, is not that the unusual condition
is one of indetermination but that the organism has responded to modi—
fying factors to produce a result different from that which would have
occurred had not the unusual factors been present. Determination of
an embryo does not always correspond to its differentiation.
 
A problem which has given rise to a great deal of experimentation in
relation to the question of determination is the influence of pressure
upon cleaving eggs. The work began with the experiments of Pflfiger
in 1884 in compressing the eggs of frogs between two glass plates. The
direction of the first three cleavage planes was found to be at right
angles to the plane of compression. When the compression was released,
normal embryos developed. Similar experiments have been performed
in numerous other eggs with the result that normal development is
found to follow the release of pressure on eggs of hydroids, sea-urchins,
frogs, and Cerebralulus. In eggs of N ereis, Ciona, and molluscs, abnormal
development follows compression. In the first group of eggs it is to be
noted that differentiation does not begin until there is relatively a
large number of cells present. In the second group signs of differentiation are to be noted very early. This series of experiments was used by
0. Hertwig and by Driesch in support of their opposition to the mosaic
theory of development. Perhaps the experiments are less crucial than
was formerly believed and merely emphasize the distinction previously
insisted upon that there are two types of eggs with respect to their
capacities for regulation as distinguished from determination.
 
finally the literature of experimental embryology contains many
records of attempts to bring about the redistribution by centrifuging
of egg substances, particularly those which are visibly different. These
materials as well as the formed materials of the egg yolk, pigment, fat,
and other inclusions are often of different specific gravity and hence
respond to centrifuging by redistributing themselves in different zones
or strata. This transfer of materials throughout the egg takes place as
a rule without injury to its living substance. The use of the centrifuge
in experimental embryology began with the work of Lyon in 1906,
although it had been utilized for the study of the constitution of the
cytoplasm by Gurwitsch in 1904. Lyon’s paper is a classical one in
embryology both because of the introduction of a new method and
because of his discovery that the redistribution of the egg constituents
does not afiect the development of the eggs from the standpoint of
determination. Many other investigators have used this method for
the study of eggs through a wide range of animal forms. The results of
the experiments with the centrifuge have rather uniformly indicated
that the visibly stratified substances in the egg are not determinative in
the sense that they are organ forming. It would seem that the method,
though productive of results which have great value from other standpoints, has failed to give critical evidence as to the determinative character of development in the eggs to which it has been applied.
 
As a conclusion to this long catalogue of evidences, the position
earlier talfen in this chapter may be reiterated. The animal series can
be arranged in such a manner as to show a transition from eggs which
are highly regulatory to those that are highly determinative in character.
N 0 eggs are known which are purely regulatory or purely determinative,
but at one end of the series differentiation sets in very late and the
regulatory capacity is high. At the other end the marks of difierentiation
begin even before cleavage and the powers of regulation are correspondingly lessened.
 
==Chapter IX Ecological Control Of Invertebrate Larval Types==
 
Throughout the animal kingdom many diverse environmental relations surround the eggs and young so that many responses might be
catalogued. Environmental influences find expression in the places
where the eggs are laid, in the amount and kind of food provided for the
young during the early development, in the different devices for their
protection, in specialized modifications for accomplishing locomotion
and other vital activities, and in many cases in the production of forms
of larvae ‘which are totally different from the adult organisms. These
special types of larvae present a great range of variations from the
modes of direct development with which the student of the embryology
of vertebrates is familiar. These larval types involve a metamorphosis
to the adult form which may be more or less complete and which in
such cases brings the growing organism into an environment quite
unlike that of its earlier development; metamorphosis is necessary in
those forms in which the food and habits of the adult are unsuitable
for developing young. If we assume the sea to have been the original
home of most primitive stocks, an assumption which is more or less
common and seems in line with the fact that very many types of animals
develop in a moist atmosphere or liquid medium, we should expect the
majority of unusual larvae to be found in the species living in salt water.
The transition from salt water to fresh or to the terrestrial forms of life
has presented many difficulties to the developing young and as a result
those animals which live in fresh water or are terrestrial are more often
characterized by direct development than are the salt-water forms.
It may be regarded as an axiom of development that sessile adults
have active young. This activity has two obvious results; first, the
species secures its dispersal through the migration of the young, and
econd, it extends the range. The migration is commonly passive but
over a period of time serves to extend the range of the species as successfully as if the adults themselves were able to move. To insure dispersal,
vast numbers of gametes must be produced, for the chance method of
fertilization that usually accompanies such cases results in a failure of
very many eggs and sperm to become further activated, and of those
eggs which are fertilized only a few can come to maturity. The larval mortality is very high indeed, for these young are the food of many
species as well as the victims of physical forces and of their own inability
to find continuously satisfactory conditions for growth. The vast number
of eggs produced may be realized by reference to the turbot which produces 9,000,000 in a single season, the cod with 5,000,000, and to the
flounder with 1,000,000. In higher animals the reproductive energy
is conserved by various means for caring for the young during early life,
but in marine forms this is usually not the case. The second consequence
of larval activity is to bring the growing forms into an entirely difierent
range. This is illustrated in the case of the lobster, which is a bottom
feeder, lurking in the crevices between stones and elsewhere to capture
whatever prey may come within its reach, or feeding upon such dead
forms as may be found nearby. The larvae, up to the time of the fourth
molt, however, swim at the surface of the sea water. In addition to this,
they are positively phototropic to light of the intensity of ordinary
daylight, but the adults are negative. Thus the pelagic larvae are brought
into a range of environment where their food, which consists of plankton,
especially copepods, is abundant. Special structural modifications adapt
these larvae to their surface pelagic life. They are the better enabled to
swim on the surface of the water because of the possession of exopods,
the outer branches of the walking legs characteristic of lower crustaceans
but not present in the adults of the higher forms. These are retained to
the fourth molt, when they are cast off, being no longer useful; the larva
then goes to the bottom. Herrick makes note of several changes in
structure and instincts which take place at the beginning of the fourth
stage, which marks the most surprising leap in the whole history of development. Among these are the following: the primitive swimming
branches of the thoracic appendages are lost; the cuticle becomes shell—
like, containing more lime; the pigments are denser, the colors brilliant,
and the color pattern variable; otocysts are present and orientation is
perfect; rotation of the great forceps is complete; the animal, during
at least a part of this stage, moves toward the light and swims steadily
at the surface with the great claws directed forward and held close
together; the preying instinct is more marked; the fighting instinct,
the instinct of fear, “feigning,” and hiding are all developed by the
close of the fourth stage or in the fifth, when the animal goes to the
bottom to stay. In many other animals similar gain is accomplished
by a specialized form of larval structure. The larva finds itself adapted
to-securing food which is suitable for it, and structures which have
only temporary employment are present and useful. It follows, however,
that the gain to the larva would become a loss if the subsequent stages
in the life cycle were not radically changed in such a way as to enable
the organism to undertake a new mode of life. In other words, metamorphosis in such cases is a necessity for bringing about those adaptations which fit the organism to live in its permanent environment and
 
there to undergo those further changes which look toward the production of new germ cells.
 
It is not usual to find metamorphosis in animals which live in fresh
water, although there are some outstanding cases in which larvae
totally unlike the adult are developed in species inhabiting fresh water.
It may, however, be taken as a general rule that development in freshwater forms with the exception of certain few highly specialized cases
is direct. Fresh water presents a great lack of constancy in living conditions as compared with those of the sea. With but few exceptions the
bodies of fresh water lack sufficient depth and area to maintain even a
low degree of constancy. Fresh water becomes heated much more easily
than the sea, it freezes comparatively quickly, its streams are subjected
to periods of flood during which the water runs rapidly and scours out
the beds or overflows, and when it recedes leaves innumerable forms of
life stranded to perish. Every stream has narrows and depths where it
runs rapidly and flats where its current is slow, an environment in
which the fragile larvae would scarcely be able to maintain themselves,
and there are but few animals which go through an independent larval
history in fresh water. The lack of suitability of fresh water to larval
development without doubt explains why so many groups of marine
animals have not been able to gain a foothold in fresh water. A very few
sponges, almost no coelenterates, occur in this environment, and many
groups of marine fish and ascidians, cephalopods, king crabs, and some
of the worm groups have not a single representative in fresh water.
Animals that cannot produce eggs which develop into young like the
adult are prevented from gaining ‘a. foothold by such a changeable
medium as fresh water. In addition to the difficulties of fresh-water life
already noted, a zone of brackish water between the fresh water and
the sea is itself an almost impassable barrier to the entrance of marine
forms.
 
Terrestrial life presents to developing larvae even more dangers
than fresh water. To this situation is due the fact that in land forms
development is either direct and fairly simple or else specialized with
complicated devices for caring for the young during their immature
period. The latter condition is illustrated by many forms of insects in
which metamorphosis is complete, often involving very complicated
life histories. Some of the disadvantageous features of the terrestrial
386 ECOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INVERTEBRATE LARVAL TYPES
 
environment are the following: temperature undergoes a wide range
of variation, often passing quickly between the extremes. This condition is quite unknown in the ocean and is much less in fresh water.
The very changeableness as well as the extremes of heat and cold are
hardships for the developing larvae. The weight of the body is no
longer buoyed up by water and must be supported at every moment.
This involves consumption of much energy as compared with the almost
passive drifting of larvae in aquatic habitats, and renders movement
much more difficult and restricted. Food no longer streams by as in
the contrasting case, but must be actively sought, is often very much
more restricted as to kind, and presents an increased toughness since
in the composition of land forms the percentage of water is much less,
and the food is necessarily more difficult to find. The glare of daylight
and the consequent difficulty of avoiding enemies puts the terrestrial
larvae to a disadvantage which forms living in the subdued shadows of
the water do not share. finally the rapid evaporation to which terrestrial forms are subjected requires special devices for protecting the soft
exterior of the organism. A heavy shell, mucous glands, and other
similar devices show what a serious drain upon the organism requirements of this kind cause.
 
These considerations account in a large measure for the lack of
uniformity in the occurrence of larval types throughout the different
groups of the animal kingdom. The particular forms of larvae within a
group are of adaptive rather than taxonomic significance.
 
The general subject of the care of young animals was briefly but
instructively discussed by Gamble in “The Animal World” (Holt and
Company). Some of the ideas mentioned on the three preceding pages
are suggested by his discussion. Gamble sums up the responses of
animals to different environmental conditions in which the young must
be produced as follows:* “We find isolated examples of the retention of
the young by diminution in the size of the family. Speaking generally,
marine animals pour their eggs broadcast, and leave their minute larvae
to complete their metamorphosis unaided and unsheltered, but in
every group there are malthusian species which not only restrict their
families in number, but enclose them by protective envelopes. The
varied experience of larval life in this curtailed and direct development
supplants metamorphosis. The eggs become larger and the young
stronger at birth.
 
“In fresh water the limitation and protection of the family is more
generally the rule. Insects and Amphibia are the only large classes
 
‘ Quoted by permission of Henry Holt & Co.
 
which go through their larval life in fresh water. But the protection
 
is usually of the simplest kind and is confined to the earlier stages of
development.
 
“On land the insects form the only class in which the majority still
pursues a free larval history. Others develop directly, either growing
up into full stature without guidance or protection, or carried and fed
by their parents for some time both before and after hatching.”


{{Richards1931 TOC}}
{{Footer}}
{{Footer}}
[[Category:Draft]]
[[Category:Draft]]

Latest revision as of 11:37, 29 March 2019

Embryology - 3 Nov 2026    Facebook link Pinterest link Twitter link  Expand to Translate  
Google Translate - select your language from the list shown below (this will open a new external page)

العربية | català | 中文 | 中國傳統的 | français | Deutsche | עִברִית | हिंदी | bahasa Indonesia | italiano | 日本語 | 한국어 | မြန်မာ | Pilipino | Polskie | português | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਦੇ | Română | русский | Español | Swahili | Svensk | ไทย | Türkçe | اردو | ייִדיש | Tiếng Việt    These external translations are automated and may not be accurate. (More? About Translations)

Richards A Outline of Comparative Embryology. (1931)

Online Editor 
Mark Hill.jpg
This historic 1931 embryology textbook by Richards was designed as an introduction to the topic. Currently only the text has been made available online, figures will be added at a later date. My thanks to the Internet Archive for making the original scanned book available.
History Links: Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Embryology Textbooks | Embryologists | Historic Vignette | Historic Periods | Historic Terminology | Human Embryo Collections | Carnegie Contributions | 17-18th C Anatomies | Embryology Models | Category:Historic Embryology
Historic Papers: 1800's | 1900's | 1910's | 1920's | 1930's | 1940's | 1950's | 1960's | 1970's | 1980's


1931 Richards: Part One General Embryology 1 Historical Development of Embryology | 2 The Germ-Cell Cycle | 3 Egg and Cleavage Types | 4 Holoblastic Types of Cleavage | 5 Meroblastic Types of Cleavage | 6 Types of Blastulae | 7 Endoderm Formation | 8 Mesoderm Formation | 9 Types of Invertebrate Larvae | 10 Formation of the Mammalian Embryo | 11 Egg and Embryonic Membranes | Part Two Embryological Problems 1 The Origin And Development Of Germ Cells | 2 Germ-Layer Theory | 3 The Recapitulation Theory | 4 Asexual Reproduction | 5 Parthenogenesis | 6 Paedogenesis And Neoteny | 7 Polyembryony | 8 The Determination Problem | 9 Ecological Control Of Invertebrate Larval Types

Historic Disclaimer - information about historic embryology pages 
Mark Hill.jpg
Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

Outline of Comparative Embryology

By

Aute Richards

Professor of Zoology

University of Oklahoma

New York John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. London: Chapman & Hall, Limited 1931

1951

Table of Contents

Part One General Embryology Part Two Embryological Problems

Preface

As the result of a number of years of experience in introducing students to the subject of embryology, the writer has found it desirable to ‘depart from the common practice of studying chiefly the special embryology of the chick, pig, and perhaps of amphioxus and the frog, and to devote much attention to the principles of general embryology. This procedure is based upon the assumption that a broad background of general knowledge forms a desirable starting point for the study of special embryology to be taken up later. As comparative anatomy has proven to be the best basis for the later study of anatomy, so comparative embryology forms a proper basis for a study of special embryology. Unfortunately there has been no book in our language which brings together in a small compass the principles of general comparative embryology.

In this book it is the aim to set up the general principles of development so that the student may see how his special case—chick, starfish, or other form—is merely one of several types and what its relation to the other types may be. The writer holds that the most effective presentation of the subject matter of embryology is the laboratory study of desirable types, supported by text-book and “quiz” work on these forms and accompanied by the consideration from a comparative standpoint of the broad principles of the subject, such as types of egg structure, of cleavage, of gastrulation, and the critical consideration of classical embryological doctrines, etc. To present the material in brief form for this general part of a course in Comparative Embryology this volume is designed. '

In Part One are taken up those phases of development which are passed through in the embryology of most higher forms of animals. A comparative study of these phases no doubt forms the basis of ninetenths of the courses in this subject. Of the vast amount of material from which choice must be made, the decision as to whether any certain topic should be discussed has been based always upon a single criterion. It is sought to show only how the single-celled fertilized egg arrives at the multicellular condition characteristic of the fully formed, but undifferentiated, young organism in which the organ systems are established. In an outline of comparative embryology it is not possible to follow through all the details nor to repeat descriptions whose general features apply to more than one kind of animal. Nor is it possible to follow through for these forms the later stages in their development and differentiation. If completeness were the goal, it would be necessary to include the special embryology of the many forms about which investigators would desire information, an obviously impossible task. It is hoped, however, that a basis is here laid for understanding the detailed embryology of any of the types and for working out later stages in whatever group the student’s interest may lie.


Part Two considers numerous miscellaneous problems that have arisen in connection with the history of embryology. Here the choice of topics has been governed largely by questions asked by students both beginning and more advanced. No attempt is made to cover all the classical topics of embryology, nor to arrange the ones chosen in an order to develop any particular thesis. It is simply thought to satisfy in some measure student interest in them and to make them easily available. Discussions of many of them are not available in brief form in any English text, although they concern matters about which students of zoology should be informed, for they are chiefly problems of normal development.


The embryology of the present day is experimental embryology. Its aim is to secure an insight into the real nature of those steps by which a single-celled egg becomes a completed adult. An understanding of development in its true sense is its goal. Many aids to experiment used only by chemists or physicists in years gone by are now every-day tools of the embryologists, for descriptive embryology alone is inadequate to give a complete understanding of development. Yet experimental embryology runs the danger of considering only processes and those out of relation to structures. It is in structures that functions are inherent, for one cannot understand the workings of a machine with which he is unfamiliar. Morphology in its descriptive phases is therefore basic to a proper attempt to work out functional relations. Our admiration for the attempts to secure an intelligent conception of the mystery which underlies the pageant of development must not allow us to disregard the importance of a foundation of knowledge of descriptive embryology. Perhaps the errors which may be avoided by the study of descriptive embryology in its comparative phases may serve to recompense the student for the time lost from experimental embryology.


Undoubtedly numerous errors are to be found in this volume. Much that is discussed has been the subject of life-long study by many investigators and has concerned material collected from all over the world. To understand all adequately so that each may be mentioned correctly and weighted properly in a brief outline, is a task hardly to be accomplished, and many inconsistencies of treatment must be apparent to the reader. It must be borne in mind, however, that not an extended treatise but an outline of principles is the intent of the book, and the intent places many limitations upon what can be undertaken.


Acknowledgments are due for assistance in almost every section. The material treated in a work of this kind is by no means new, and it would be impossible to present any one phase of it without finding parallel treatment in some source of information available to students of embryology of this day. There is no claim to originality in the book, not even in the treatment of many chapters. The book will have served its purpose, however, if it appears to have sufficient pedagogical background and if it presents in sufficiently compact form these principles, many of which I think are not briefly summarized elsewhere in the English language, and which are needed to give students a basis for work in special embryology,-either medicalor experimental.


Korschelt and Heider’s “Lehrbuch der vergleiehenden Entwicklungs— geschichte” is a great treasure house of embryological learning to which constant reference has been made. In many places (particularly in Chapters VII and VIII, Part One) even their arrangement has been so much the best that only minor departures from it are to be found here. In others an entirely different organization of the same material is here adopted. But the debt to Korschelt and Heider is a very great one. I appreciate very mucl_1-the gracious verbal permission to use their material freely which was given me by both Doctors Korschelt and Heider. .”_


Drawings to illustrate ,the text are from many sources and not many are new. The writer is not impressed with the desirability of replacing pictures made by investigators on specialforms with new ones when the former are well known and of proven value. The drawings in every case are accompanied by a legend giving the name of the investigators to whom indebtedness is due.


Permission has been granted by the following publishers to make use of the figures indicated either as modified, or in the case of numbers 1, 2, 3, 135, 136, 142, 153, 1-81 of the figures themselves. By Henry Holt & Co. permission has been given to use from Loey’s “Biology and Its Makers,” our figures 1, 2, and 3; to use from Kellicott’s “General Embryology” our figure 5; from Kellicott’s “Chordate Development” our figures 135, 136, 142, 144, and 181; and from Lillie’s “Embryology of the Chick” our figures 151, 152. By P. Blakiston’s Son & Co., Inc., permission has been given to use from Folsom’s “Entomology with Special Reference to Its Ecological Aspects,” 3rd edition, our figures 117, 161, and 162; and from Patten’s “Embryology of the Pig,” figure 7. The Oxford University Press has permitted the use from Jenkinson’s “Vertebrate Embryology” of our figures 81 and 173. The Princeton University Press has granted permission to use from Conklin’s “ Heredity and Environment” our figures 7 and 8. The U. S. Bureau of fisheries has given permission to use from Herrick’s “American Lobster” figures 113, and 1973.. And William Wood & Co. have permitted the modification of figures from Bailey and Miller’s “Textbook of Embryology” represented in figures 140 and 141. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., has sold us permission to make use of our figures 103, 109, 110 from McBride’s “Textbook of Embryology, Vol. I, Invertebrate Embryology,” and of our figures 167, 168, and 170 from Graham Kerr’s “Textbook of Embryology, Vol. II, Vertebrate Embryology.” The graciousness of the various publishing companies in thus facilitating our work is deeply appreciated.


Especial acknowledgment for help in many ways including aid with the materials used and the reading of parts of the text is due to 1ny wife, Mrs. Mildred Hoge Richards. My colleagues of the Department of Zoology of the University of Oklahoma, Doctor A. O. Weese and Doctor A. I. Ortenburger have assisted with advice and have read portions of the text. Professor J. F. Paxton of the Department of Greek has aided me with questions of terminology. And finally my assistants Mrs. Celeste Whaley Taft and Miss Kara J. Fullerton have given the most painstaking attention to a multitude of details. To all of these I am deeply grateful.

A. R.

Historic Disclaimer - information about historic embryology pages 
Mark Hill.jpg
Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

1931 Richards: Part One General Embryology 1 Historical Development of Embryology | 2 The Germ-Cell Cycle | 3 Egg and Cleavage Types | 4 Holoblastic Types of Cleavage | 5 Meroblastic Types of Cleavage | 6 Types of Blastulae | 7 Endoderm Formation | 8 Mesoderm Formation | 9 Types of Invertebrate Larvae | 10 Formation of the Mammalian Embryo | 11 Egg and Embryonic Membranes | Part Two Embryological Problems 1 The Origin And Development Of Germ Cells | 2 Germ-Layer Theory | 3 The Recapitulation Theory | 4 Asexual Reproduction | 5 Parthenogenesis | 6 Paedogenesis And Neoteny | 7 Polyembryony | 8 The Determination Problem | 9 Ecological Control Of Invertebrate Larval Types

Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2026, November 3) Embryology Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Book_-_Outline_of_Comparative_Embryology

What Links Here?
© Dr Mark Hill 2026, UNSW Embryology ISBN: 978 0 7334 2609 4 - UNSW CRICOS Provider Code No. 00098G
Retrieved from ‘https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Outline_of_Comparative_Embryology&oldid=374875’
Powered by MediaWiki