Talk:Abnormal Development - Chemicals

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On this website the Discussion Tab or "talk pages" for a topic has been used for several purposes: References - recent and historic that relates to the topic Additional topic information - currently prepared in draft format Links - to related webpages Topic page - an edit history as used on other Wiki sites Lecture/Practical - student feedback Student Projects - online project discussions. Links: Pubmed Most Recent \| Reference Tutorial \| Journal Searches Contents 1 Glossary Links 2 2020 3 2019 3.1 A mechanism for the effect of endocrine disrupting chemicals on placentation 3.2 Toxicokinetics of bisphenol A, bisphenol S, and bisphenol F in a pregnancy sheep model 3.3 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: An Occult Mediator of Metabolic Disease 4 2018 4.1 Genotoxic and mutagenic studies of teratogens in developing rat and mouse 4.2 Effects of environmental Bisphenol A exposures on germ cell development and Leydig cell function in the human fetal testis 5 2015 5.1 Actions of Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S on the Reproductive Neuroendocrine System During Early Development in Zebrafish 5.2 Expression Analysis of DGKK during External Genitalia Formation 5.3 Low-dose exposure to bisphenol A and replacement bisphenol S induces precocious hypothalamic neurogenesis in embryonic zebrafish 6 2014 6.1 Preconception Maternal and Paternal Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Birth Size: The LIFE Study 6.2 The association between prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and thyroid hormone levels in newborns in Yancheng, China 6.3 Alteration of rat fetal cerebral cortex development after prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls 7 2012 7.1 Developmental and reproductive outcomes in humans and animals after glyphosate exposure: a critical analysis 8 2010 8.1 Final Report on Carcinogens Background Document for Formaldehyde 9 2009 9.1 Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes and environmental chemical contaminants 9.2 Effects of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on mental and motor development in Japanese children at 6 months of age Glossary Links Glossary: A \| B \| C \| D \| E \| F \| G \| H \| I \| J \| K \| L \| M \| N \| O \| P \| Q \| R \| S \| T \| U \| V \| W \| X \| Y \| Z \| Numbers \| Symbols \| Term Link Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, April 19) Embryology Abnormal Development - Chemicals. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Talk:Abnormal_Development_-_Chemicals

2020

Mariana M & Cairrao E. (2020). Phthalates Implications in the Cardiovascular System. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis , 7, . PMID: 32707888 DOI.

Phthalates Implications in the Cardiovascular System

Today's sedentary lifestyle and eating habits have been implicated as some of the causes of the increased incidence of several diseases, including cancer and cardiovascular diseases. However, environmental pollutants have also been identified as another possible cause for this increase in recent decades. The constant human exposure to plastics has been raising attention regarding human health, particularly when it comes to phthalates. These are plasticizers used in the manufacture of industrial and consumer products, such as PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) plastics and personal care products, with endocrine-disrupting properties, as they can bind molecular targets in the body and interfere with hormonal function. Since these compounds are not covalently bound to the plastic, they are easily released into the environment during their manufacture, use, or disposal, leading to increased human exposure and enhancing health risks. In fact, some studies have related phthalate exposure with cardiovascular health, having already shown a positive association with the development of hypertension and atherosclerosis in adults and some cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents. Therefore, the main purpose of this review is to present and relate the most recent studies concerning the implications of phthalates effects on the cardiovascular system.

Dunn AJ. (2020). Environmental Influences and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol , , . PMID: 32701518 DOI.

Environmental Influences and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine-metabolic disorder whose pathogenesis is not well-understood. While genetic insults have been hypothesized as possible causes, there are a large number of environmental chemicals known to have detrimental effects on the endocrine system and may be irreversible, especially when exposure occurs early in development. Many of these chemicals have been investigated as causes of PCOS by measuring serum and urinary levels of common endocrine disruptors in women and adolescents with PCOS as well as using animal models for PCOS induction with chemical exposures.

Khasin LG, Della Rosa J, Petersen N, Moeller J, Kriegsfeld LJ & Lishko PV. (2020). The Impact of Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate on Sperm Fertility. Front Cell Dev Biol , 8, 426. PMID: 32695775 DOI.

The Impact of Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate on Sperm Fertility

A growing number of studies point to reduced fertility upon chronic exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as phthalates and plasticizers. These toxins are ubiquitous and are often found in food and beverage containers, medical devices, as well as in common household and personal care items. Animal studies with EDCs, such as phthalates and bisphenol A have shown a dose-dependent decrease in fertility and embryo toxicity upon chronic exposure. However, limited research has been conducted on the acute effects of these EDCs on male fertility. Here we used a murine model to test the acute effects of four ubiquitous environmental toxins: bisphenol A (BPA), di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), and dimethyl phthalate (DMP) on sperm fertilizing ability and pre-implantation embryo development. The most potent of these toxins, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), was further evaluated for its effect on sperm ion channel activity, capacitation status, acrosome reaction and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). DEHP demonstrated a profound hazardous effect on sperm fertility by producing an altered capacitation profile, impairing the acrosome reaction, and, interestingly, also increasing ROS production. These results indicate that in addition to its known chronic impact on reproductive potential, DEHP also imposes acute and profound damage to spermatozoa, and thus, represents a significant risk to male fertility.

2019

Sagiv SK, Bruno JL, Baker JM, Palzes V, Kogut K, Rauch S, Gunier R, Mora AM, Reiss AL & Eskenazi B. (2019). Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and functional neuroimaging in adolescents living in proximity to pesticide application. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 116, 18347-18356. PMID: 31451641 DOI.

Abstract We have reported consistent associations of prenatal organophosphate pesticide (OP) exposure with poorer cognitive function and behavior problems in our Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS), a birth cohort of Mexican American youth in California's agricultural Salinas Valley. However, there is little evidence on how OPs affect neural dynamics underlying associations. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure cortical activation during tasks of executive function, attention, social cognition, and language comprehension in 95 adolescent CHAMACOS participants. We estimated associations of residential proximity to OP use during pregnancy with cortical activation in frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using multiple regression models, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics. OP exposure was associated with altered brain activation during tasks of executive function. For example, with a 10-fold increase in total OP pesticide use within 1 km of maternal residence during pregnancy, there was a bilateral decrease in brain activation in the prefrontal cortex during a cognitive flexibility task (β = -4.74; 95% CI: -8.18, -1.31 and β = -4.40; 95% CI: -7.96, -0.84 for the left and right hemispheres, respectively). We also found that prenatal OP exposure was associated with sex differences in brain activation during a language comprehension task. This first functional neuroimaging study of prenatal OP exposure suggests that pesticides may impact cortical brain activation, which could underlie previously reported OP-related associations with cognitive and behavioral function. Use of fNIRS in environmental epidemiology offers a practical alternative to neuroimaging technologies and enhances our efforts to assess the impact of chemical exposures on neurodevelopment. Copyright © 2019 the Author(s). Published by PNAS. KEYWORDS: fNIRS; functional neuroimaging; neurodevelopment; organophosphates; prenatal exposure PMCID: PMC6744848 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1903940116

Akgül S, Sur Ü, Düzçeker Y, Balcı A, Kızılkan MP, Kanbur N, Bozdağ G, Erkekoğlu P, Gümüş E, Kocer-Gumusel B & Derman O. (2019). Bisphenol A and phthalate levels in adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome. Gynecol. Endocrinol. , 35, 1084-1087. PMID: 31219355 DOI. Abstract Endocrine disruptors have been proposed in the etiology of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) as they have the potency to interfere with hormone-sensitivity systems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of bisphenol A (BPA) and phtalates in adolescents with PCOS. Sixty-two girls with PCOS and 33 controls, age 12-18 years were enrolled in the study. The diagnosis of PCOS was made using modified Rotterdam criteria. Urinary BPA levels were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP), the most commonly used phthalate and mono-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (MEHP), its main metabolite were measured by using high-performance liquid chromatography. Adolescents with PCOS had markedly increased BPA levels (15.89 μg/g creatine ± 1.16) when compared with the control group (7.30 μg/g creatine ± 1.38) (p = .016). In adolescents with PCOS, BPA was significantly correlated with polycystic morphology on ultrasound but not with obesity androgen levels, or other metabolic parameters. Patients with PCOS (DEHP: 0.40 ppm ± 0.24, MEHP: 0.13 ppm ± 0.23) and controls (DEHP: 0.49 ppm ± 0.27, MEHP: 0.14 ppm ± 0.3) had similar serum phtalate concentrations (p = .7 and p = .3, respectively). Exposure to specific endocrine disruptors such as BPA could modify neuroendocrine, reproductive, and metabolic regulation favoring PCOS development in adolescents. KEYWORDS: Adolescents; bisphenol A; endocrine disruptor; phthalates; polycystic ovary syndrome PMID: 31219355 DOI: 10.1080/09513590.2019.1630608

A mechanism for the effect of endocrine disrupting chemicals on placentation

Chemosphere. 2019 Sep;231:326-336. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.133. Epub 2019 May 18.

Yang C1, Song G2, Lim W3.

Numerous recent studies have shown that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the body of pregnant women can pass through the placenta and be exposed to the fetus, leading to fetal development and cognitive impairment. Placentation through invasion of trophoblast cells and vascular remodeling is essential to maintaining maternal and fetal health throughout the pregnancy. Abnormal placentation can lead to pregnancy disorders such as preeclampsia (PE) and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). However, many studies have not been conducted on whether EDCs can inhibit the development and function of the placenta. Isolating placental tissues to analyze the effect of EDCs on placentation has several limitations. In this review, we discussed the types of EDCs that can pass through the placental barrier and accumulate in the placenta with relative outcome. EDCs can be released from a variety of products including plasticizers, pesticides, and retardant. We also discussed the development and dysfunction of the placenta when EDCs were treated on trophoblast cells or pregnant rodent models. The effects of EDCs on the placenta of livestock are also discussed, together with the molecular mechanism of EDCs acting in trophoblast cells. We describe how EDCs cross the membrane of trophoblasts to regulate signaling pathways, causing genetic and epigenetic changes that lead to changes in cell viability and invasiveness. Further studies on the effects of EDCs on placenta may draw attention to the correct use of products containing EDCs during pregnancy.

KEYWORDS: BPA; EDCs; Phthalate; Placenta; Trophoblast PMID: 31132539

Toxicokinetics of bisphenol A, bisphenol S, and bisphenol F in a pregnancy sheep model

Chemosphere. 2019 Apr;220:185-194. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.109. Epub 2018 Dec 15.

Gingrich J1, Pu Y2, Ehrhardt R3, Karthikraj R4, Kannan K4, Veiga-Lopez A5.

Bisphenol A (BPA), S (BPS), and F (BPF) are among the most abundant bisphenols detected in humans, yet pregnancy toxicokinetics for BPS or BPF remain unknown. Because gestational BPS can disrupt placental function and result in reproductive and metabolic disorders in the progeny, the aim of the study was to investigate BPS and BPF toxicokinetics during pregnancy using an in vivo approach. Fetal catheterizations were conducted in pregnant sheep (n = 6) at mid-pregnancy and injected with either a single dose of BPS (n = 3, 0.5 mg/kg, s.c.), or a combination of BPS, BPF, and BPA (n = 3, 0.5 mg/kg for each chemical, s.c.). Maternal and fetal blood and urine and amniotic fluid were collected over 72 h and analyzed for bisphenols by HPLC-MS/MS. We observed significant differences in half-life, maximum concentration, and total body clearance in maternal circulation among bisphenols. Longer half-lives were observed in fetal vs. maternal circulation for all bisphenols. Fetal toxicokinetics differed among bisphenols with BPS having the longest fetal half-life. All bisphenols reached basal levels at 48 h in maternal plasma, but were still detectable in amniotic fluid, fetal urine, and fetal plasma at 72 h. In this first pregnancy toxicokinetic study of BPS and BPF we have demonstrated maternal and fetal toxicokinetic differences among all three bisphenols. Higher BPS persistence in the fetal compartment warrants studies into progeny adverse outcomes following gestational exposure. Additionally, toxicokinetic differences among bisphenols call for a more careful approach when extrapolating kinetic information from one bisphenol chemical to another. Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. KEYWORDS: Bisphenols; Fetal exposure; Pregnancy; Toxicokinetics PMID: 30583211 PMCID: PMC6363860 [Available on 2020-04-01] DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.109

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: An Occult Mediator of Metabolic Disease

Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019 Mar 1;10:112. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00112. eCollection 2019.

Papalou O1, Kandaraki EA1, Papadakis G2, Diamanti-Kandarakis E1.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), a heterogeneous group of exogenous chemicals that can interfere with any aspect of endogenous hormones, represent an emerging global threat for human metabolism. There is now considerable evidence that the observed upsurge of metabolic disease cannot be fully attributed to increased caloric intake, physical inactivity, sleep deficit, and ageing. Among environmental factors implicated in the global deterioration of metabolic health, EDCs have drawn the biggest attention of scientific community, and not unjustifiably. EDCs unleash a coordinated attack toward multiple components of human metabolism, including crucial, metabolically-active organs such as hypothalamus, adipose tissue, pancreatic beta cells, skeletal muscle, and liver. Specifically, EDCs' impact during critical developmental windows can promote the disruption of individual or multiple systems involved in metabolism, via inducing epigenetic changes that can permanently alter the epigenome in the germline, enabling changes to be transmitted to the subsequent generations. The clear effect of this multifaceted attack is the manifestation of metabolic disease, clinically expressed as obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Although limitations of EDCs research do exist, there is no doubt that EDCs constitute a crucial parameter of the global deterioration of metabolic health we currently encounter. KEYWORDS: diabetes mellitus; endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC); enviromental chemicals; environmental contaminants; human metabolism; insulin resistance; obesity; obesogens PMID: 30881345 PMCID: PMC6406073 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00112

2018

Genotoxic and mutagenic studies of teratogens in developing rat and mouse

Drug Chem Toxicol. 2018 May 10:1-21. doi: 10.1080/01480545.2018.1465950.

Rencüzoğulları E1, Aydın M1.

Abstract

In this review, genotoxic and mutagenic effects of teratogenic chemical agents in both rat and mouse have been reviewed. Of these chemicals, 97 are drugs and 33 are pesticides or belong to other groups. Large literature searches were conducted to determine the effects of chemicals on chromosome abnormalities, sister chromatid exchanges, and micronucleus formation in experimental animals such as rats and mice. In addition, studies that include unscheduled DNA synthesis, DNA adduct formations, and gene mutations, which help to determine the genotoxicity or mutagenicity of chemicals, have been reviewed. It has been estimated that 46.87% of teratogenic drugs and 48.48% of teratogenic pesticides are positive in all tests. So, all of the teratogens involved in this group have genotoxic and mutagenic effects. On the other hand, 36.45% of the drugs and 21.21% of the pesticides have been found to give negative results in at least one test, with the majority of the tests giving positive results. However, only 4.16% of the drugs and 18.18% of the pesticides were determined to give negative results in the majority of the tests. Among tests with major negative results, 12.50% of the teratogenic drugs and 12.12% of the teratogenic pesticides were negative in all conducted tests. KEYWORDS: Teratogen; genotoxicity; mouse; mutagenicity; rat; rodents PMID: 29745766 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2018.1465950

Effects of environmental Bisphenol A exposures on germ cell development and Leydig cell function in the human fetal testis

PLoS One. 2018 Jan 31;13(1):e0191934. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191934. eCollection 2018.

Eladak S1,2,3, Moison D1,2,3, Guerquin MJ1,2,3, Matilionyte G4, Kilcoyne K4, N'Tumba-Byn T1,2,3, Messiaen S1,2,3, Deceuninck Y5, Pozzi-Gaudin S6, Benachi A6, Livera G1,2,3, Antignac JP5, Mitchell R4, Rouiller-Fabre V1,2,3, Habert R1,2,3.

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Using an organotypic culture system termed human Fetal Testis Assay (hFeTA) we previously showed that 0.01 μM BPA decreases basal, but not LH-stimulated, testosterone secreted by the first trimester human fetal testis. The present study was conducted to determine the potential for a long-term antiandrogenic effect of BPA using a xenograft model, and also to study the effect of BPA on germ cell development using both the hFETA and xenograft models. METHODS: Using the hFeTA system, first trimester testes were cultured for 3 days with 0.01 to 10 μM BPA. For xenografts, adult castrate male nude mice were injected with hCG and grafted with first trimester testes. Host mice received 10 μM BPA (~ 500 μg/kg/day) in their drinking water for 5 weeks. Plasma levels of total and unconjugated BPA were 0.10 μM and 0.038 μM respectively. Mice grafted with second trimester testes received 0.5 and 50 μg/kg/day BPA by oral gavage for 5 weeks. RESULTS: With first trimester human testes, using the hFeTA model, 10 μM BPA increased germ cell apoptosis. In xenografts, germ cell density was also reduced by BPA exposure. Importantly, BPA exposure significantly decreased the percentage of germ cells expressing the pluripotency marker AP-2γ, whilst the percentage of those expressing the pre-spermatogonial marker MAGE-A4 significantly increased. BPA exposure did not affect hCG-stimulated androgen production in first and second trimester xenografts as evaluated by both plasma testosterone level and seminal vesicle weight in host mice. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to BPA at environmentally relevant concentrations impairs germ cell development in first trimester human fetal testis, whilst gonadotrophin-stimulated testosterone production was unaffected in both first and second trimester testis. Studies using first trimester human fetal testis demonstrate the complementarity of the FeTA and xenograft models for determining the respective short-term and long term effects of environmental exposures. PMID: 29385186 PMCID: PMC5791995 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191934

2015

Actions of Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S on the Reproductive Neuroendocrine System During Early Development in Zebrafish

Endocrinology. 2016 Feb;157(2):636-47. doi: 10.1210/en.2015-1785. Epub 2015 Dec 10.

Qiu W1, Zhao Y1, Yang M1, Farajzadeh M1, Pan C1, Wayne NL1.

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-known environmental, endocrine-disrupting chemical, and bisphenol S (BPS) has been considered a safer alternative for BPA-free products. The present study aims to evaluate the impact of BPA and BPS on the reproductive neuroendocrine system during zebrafish embryonic and larval development and to explore potential mechanisms of action associated with estrogen receptor (ER), thyroid hormone receptor (THR), and enzyme aromatase (AROM) pathways. Environmentally relevant, low levels of BPA exposure during development led to advanced hatching time, increased numbers of GnRH3 neurons in both terminal nerve and hypothalamus, increased expression of reproduction-related genes (kiss1, kiss1r, gnrh3, lhβ, fshβ, and erα), and a marker for synaptic transmission (sv2). Low levels of BPS exposure led to similar effects: increased numbers of hypothalamic GnRH3 neurons and increased expression of kiss1, gnrh3, and erα. Antagonists of ER, THRs, and AROM blocked many of the effects of BPA and BPS on reproduction-related gene expression, providing evidence that those three pathways mediate the actions of BPA and BPS on the reproductive neuroendocrine system. This study demonstrates that alternatives to BPA used in the manufacture of BPA-free products are not necessarily safer. Furthermore, this is the first study to describe the impact of low-level BPA and BPS exposure on the Kiss/Kiss receptor system during development. It is also the first report of multiple cellular pathways (ERα, THRs, and AROM) mediating the effects of BPA and BPS during embryonic development in any species.

PMID 26653335

Expression Analysis of DGKK during External Genitalia Formation

J Urol. 2015 Jul 7. pii: S0022-5347(15)04317-7. doi: 10.1016/j.juro.2015.06.098. [Epub ahead of print]

Shen J1, Liu B1, Sinclair A1, Cunha G1, Baskin LS1, Choudhry S2.

Abstract

PURPOSE: Genetic variants in diacylglycerol kinase κ (DGKK) have been strongly associated with risk of hypospadias. We investigated the expression pattern of Dgkk during development of mouse external genitalia to better understand its function and mechanism in the etiology of hypospadias. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed Dgkk expression analysis via indirect immunofluorescence in histological sections of CD-1 mouse embryonic and postnatal male, female and diethylsilbestrol treated external genitalia. Histological findings were supplemented with DGKK expression analysis using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assays. RESULTS: In mouse external genitalia Dgkk was expressed in the membrane and cytoplasm of differentiating squamous epithelial cells of urethral plate/groove and epidermis but not in the undifferentiated epithelial cells of preputial lamina or basal layer of urethral groove epithelium. CD-1 gestation day 18 male mouse genital tubercle treated with oil or diethylstilbestrol showed similar patterns of Dgkk expression despite many morphological differences, including formation of preputial cleft observed in diethylsilbestrol treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: Dgkk appears to be a marker or mediator of squamous cell differentiation during development of mouse external genitalia. However, no association exists between Dgkk expression and formation of preputial cleft in the genital tubercle of diethylsilbestrol treated mice, suggesting that these 2 events may follow independent pathways in mice. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of DGKK in hypospadias. Copyright © 2015 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. KEYWORDS: gene expression profiling; genitalia; hypospadias PMID 26162297

Low-dose exposure to bisphenol A and replacement bisphenol S induces precocious hypothalamic neurogenesis in embryonic zebrafish

Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015 Feb 3;112(5):1475-80. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1417731112. Epub 2015 Jan 12.

Kinch CD1, Ibhazehiebo K2, Jeong JH2, Habibi HR3, Kurrasch DM4.

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous endocrine disruptor that is present in many household products, has been linked to obesity, cancer, and, most relevant here, childhood neurological disorders such as anxiety and hyperactivity. However, how BPA exposure translates into these neurodevelopmental disorders remains poorly understood. Here, we used zebrafish to link BPA mechanistically to disease etiology. Strikingly, treatment of embryonic zebrafish with very low-dose BPA (0.0068 μM, 1,000-fold lower than the accepted human daily exposure) and bisphenol S (BPS), a common analog used in BPA-free products, resulted in 180% and 240% increases, respectively, in neuronal birth (neurogenesis) within the hypothalamus, a highly conserved brain region involved in hyperactivity. Furthermore, restricted BPA/BPS exposure specifically during the neurogenic window caused later hyperactive behaviors in zebrafish larvae. Unexpectedly, we show that BPA-mediated precocious neurogenesis and the concomitant behavioral phenotype were not dependent on predicted estrogen receptors but relied on androgen receptor-mediated up-regulation of aromatase. Although human epidemiological results are still emerging, an association between high maternal urinary BPA during gestation and hyperactivity and other behavioral disturbances in the child has been suggested. Our studies here provide mechanistic support that the neurogenic period indeed may be a window of vulnerability and uncovers previously unexplored avenues of research into how endocrine disruptors might perturb early brain development. Furthermore, our results show that BPA-free products are not necessarily safer and support the removal of all bisphenols from consumer merchandise. KEYWORDS: androgen receptor; aromatase; endocrine disruption; hyperactivity

PMID 25583509

2014

Preconception Maternal and Paternal Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Birth Size: The LIFE Study

Environ Health Perspect. 2014 Aug 5.

Robledo CA1, Yeung E1, Mendola P1, Sundaram R1, Maisog J1, Sweeney AM2, Barr DB3, Buck Louis GM1.

Abstract

Background: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are developmental toxicants but the impact of both maternal and paternal exposures on offspring birth size is largely unexplored. Objective: To examine associations between maternal and paternal serum concentrations of 63 POPs, comprising five major classes of pollutants, with birth size measures. Methods: Parental serum concentrations of 9 organochlorine pesticides, 1 polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), 7 perfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs), 10 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 36 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured prior to conception for 234 couples. Differences in birth weight, length, head circumference, and ponderal index were estimated using multiple linear regression per 1-standard deviation (SD) increase in natural log-transformed (ln-transformed) chemicals. Models were estimated separately for each parent and adjusted for maternal age, maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) and other confounders, and all models included an interaction term between infant gender and each chemical. Results: Among girls (n = 117) birth weight was significantly lower (range: 84-195 grams) in association with 1-SD increase in ln-transformed maternal serum concentrations of DDT, PBDE congeners 28 and 183 and paternal serum concentrations of PBDE-183 and PCB-167. Among boys (n = 113), maternal (PCBs: 138, 153, 167, 170, 195, and 209, PFOSA) and paternal (PCBs: 172 and 195) serum concentrations of several POPs were statistically associated with lower birth weight (range: 98-170 grams), while paternal concentrations of PBDEs (66, 99) were associated with higher birth weight. Differences in offspring head circumference, length, and ponderal index were also associated with parental exposures. Conclusions: Preconceptional maternal and paternal concentrations of several POPs were associated with statistically significant differences in birth size among offspring.

PMID 25095280

The association between prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and thyroid hormone levels in newborns in Yancheng, China

Environ Res. 2014 Feb;129:47-51. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2013.12.009. Epub 2014 Jan 15.

Li C1, Cheng Y1, Tang Q2, Lin S1, Li Y1, Hu X1, Nian J2, Gu H1, Lu Y1, Tang H2, Dai S2, Zhang H2, Jin C3, Zhang H1, Jin Y2, Jin Y4.

Abstract

Organochlorine pesticides can interfere with the thyroid hormones that play an important role in early neurodevelopment. Although organochlorine pesticides have been banned in China since 1983, their residues are still detectable in the environment. However, few studies have investigated the adverse health effects of prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticide residues on newborns in China. The present study, conducted in Yancheng City, Jiangsu Province, China, aimed to examine the association between the levels of organochlorine pesticides in maternal and cord sera and to assess the impact of prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides on thyroid hormone levels in cord serum. Eleven organochlorine pesticides in maternal and cord sera were measured in 247 mother-infant pairs recruited from Yancheng City between February 2010 and June 2010. The concentration of the thyroid hormones free triiodothyronine (FT3), free thyroxine (FT4), and thyrotropin (TSH) were determined in cord serum. Among the 11 tested organochlorine pesticides, the detectable levels of hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocycolohexane (β-HCH) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) in both maternal and cord sera were above 50%. The levels of β-HCH and p,p'-DDE in maternal sera were positively associated with the levels in cord sera (r=0.421, P<0.01; r=0.288, P<0.01). After adjusting for confounders, the TSH level in cord serum samples was negatively associated with the HCB level (OR=0.535, 95% CI=(0.304-0.941)). Our data demonstrated that DDT, β-HCH and HCB residues bioconcentrate in maternal and cord sera. Moreover, the correlation analysis suggested that organochlorine pesticides in maternal blood can transfer through the placenta and affect newborn thyroid hormone levels. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. KEYWORDS: Newborns; Organochlorine pesticides; Pregnant women; Prenatal exposure; Thyroid hormone levels

PMID 24529002

Alteration of rat fetal cerebral cortex development after prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls

PLoS One. 2014 Mar 18;9(3):e91903. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091903. eCollection 2014.

Naveau E1, Pinson A1, Gérard A1, Nguyen L2, Charlier C3, Thomé JP4, Zoeller RT5, Bourguignon JP1, Parent AS1. Author information

Abstract

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are environmental contaminants that persist in environment and human tissues. Perinatal exposure to these endocrine disruptors causes cognitive deficits and learning disabilities in children. These effects may involve their ability to interfere with thyroid hormone (TH) action. We tested the hypothesis that developmental exposure to PCBs can concomitantly alter TH levels and TH-regulated events during cerebral cortex development: progenitor proliferation, cell cycle exit and neuron migration. Pregnant rats exposed to the commercial PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 ended gestation with reduced total and free serum thyroxine levels. Exposure to Aroclor 1254 increased cell cycle exit of the neuronal progenitors and delayed radial neuronal migration in the fetal cortex. Progenitor cell proliferation, cell death and differentiation rate were not altered by prenatal exposure to PCBs. Given that PCBs remain ubiquitous, though diminishing, contaminants in human systems, it is important that we further understand their deleterious effects in the brain.

PMID 24642964

2012

Developmental and reproductive outcomes in humans and animals after glyphosate exposure: a critical analysis

J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2012;15(1):39-96.

Williams AL, Watson RE, DeSesso JM. Source Exponent, Inc, Alexandria, Virginia, USA. Abstract Glyphosate is the active ingredient of several widely used herbicide formulations. Glyphosate targets the shikimate metabolic pathway, which is found in plants but not in animals. Despite the relative safety of glyphosate, various adverse developmental and reproductive problems have been alleged as a result of exposure in humans and animals. To assess the developmental and reproductive safety of glyphosate, an analysis of the available literature was conducted. Epidemiological and animal reports, as well as studies on mechanisms of action related to possible developmental and reproductive effects of glyphosate, were reviewed. An evaluation of this database found no consistent effects of glyphosate exposure on reproductive health or the developing offspring. Furthermore, no plausible mechanisms of action for such effects were elucidated. Although toxicity was observed in studies that used glyphosate-based formulations, the data strongly suggest that such effects were due to surfactants present in the formulations and not the direct result of glyphosate exposure. To estimate potential human exposure concentrations to glyphosate as a result of working directly with the herbicide, available biomonitoring data were examined. These data demonstrated extremely low human exposures as a result of normal application practices. Furthermore, the estimated exposure concentrations in humans are >500-fold less than the oral reference dose for glyphosate of 2 mg/kg/d set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA 1993). In conclusion, the available literature shows no solid evidence linking glyphosate exposure to adverse developmental or reproductive effects at environmentally realistic exposure concentrations.

PMID 22202229

2010

Final Report on Carcinogens Background Document for Formaldehyde

Rep Carcinog Backgr Doc. 2010 Jan;(10-5981):i-512.

National Toxicology Program

Abstract Executive Summary: Introduction: Formaldehyde is a high-production-volume chemical with a wide array of uses. The predominant use of formaldehyde in the United States is in the production of industrial resins (mainly urea-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde, polyacetal, and melamine-formaldehyde resins) that are used to manufacture products such as adhesives and binders for wood products, pulp and paper products, plastics, and synthetic fibers, and in textile finishing. Formaldehyde is also used as a chemical intermediate. Resin production and use as a chemical intermediate together account for over 80% of its use. Other, smaller uses of formaldehyde that may be important for potential human exposure include use in agriculture, medical use as a disinfectant and preservative (for pathology, histology, and embalming), and use in numerous consumer products as a biocide and preservative. Formaldehyde (gas) is listed in the Eleventh Report on Carcinogens (RoC) as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in laboratory animals (NTP 2005a); it was first listed in the 2nd RoC (NTP 1981). Formaldehyde (all physical forms) was nominated by NIEHS for possible reclassification in the 12th RoC based on the 2004 review by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 2006), which concluded that there was sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in humans.

Human Exposure: Formaldehyde has numerous industrial and commercial uses and is produced in very large amounts (billions of pounds per year in the United States) by catalytic oxidation of methanol. Its predominant use, accounting for roughly 55% of consumption, is in the production of industrial resins, which are used in the production of numerous commercial products. Formaldehyde is used in industrial processes primarily as a solution (formalin) or solid (paraformaldehyde or trioxane), but exposure is frequently to formaldehyde gas, which is released during many of the processes. Formaldehyde gas is also created from the combustion of organic material and can be produced secondarily in air from photochemical reactions involving virtually all classes of hydrocarbon pollutants. In some instances, secondary production may exceed direct air emissions. Formaldehyde is also produced endogenously in humans and animals. Formaldehyde is a simple, one-carbon molecule that is rapidly metabolized, is endogenously produced, and is also formed through the metabolism of many xenobiotic agents. Because of these issues, typical biological indices of exposure, such as levels of formaldehyde or its metabolites in blood or urine, have proven to be ineffective measures of exposure.

Formaldehyde can bind covalently to single-stranded DNA and protein to form crosslinks, or with human serum albumin or the N-terminal valine of hemoglobin to form molecular adducts, and these reaction products of formaldehyde might serve as biomarkers for exposure to formaldehyde. Occupational exposure to formaldehyde is highly variable and can occur in numerous industries, including the manufacture of formaldehyde and formaldehyde-based resins, wood-composite and furniture production, plastics production, histology and pathology, embalming and biology laboratories, foundries, fiberglass production, construction, agriculture, and firefighting, among others. In fact, because formaldehyde is ubiquitous, it has been suggested that occupational exposure to formaldehyde occurs in all work places. Formaldehyde is also ubiquitous in the environment and has been detected in indoor and outdoor air; in treated drinking water, bottled drinking water, surface water, and groundwater; on land and in the soil; and in numerous types of food. The primary source of exposure is from inhalation of formaldehyde gas in indoor settings (both residential and occupational); however, formaldehyde also may adsorb to respirable particles, providing a source of additional exposure. Major sources of formaldehyde exposure for the general public have included combustion sources (both indoor and outdoor sources including industrial and automobile emissions, home cooking and heating, and cigarette smoke), off-gassing from numerous construction and home furnishing products, and off-gassing from numerous consumer goods. Ingestion of food and water can also be a significant source of exposure to formaldehyde. Numerous agencies, including the Department of Homeland Security, CPSC, DOT, EPA, FDA, HUD, the Mine Safety and Health Administration, OSHA, ACGIH, and NIOSH, have developed regulations and guidelines to reduce exposure to formaldehyde.

Human Cancer Studies: A large number of epidemiological studies have evaluated the relationship between formaldehyde exposure and carcinogenicity in humans. The studies fall into the following main groups: (1) historical cohort studies and nested case-control studies of workers in a variety of industries that manufacture or use formaldehyde, including the chemical, plastics, fiberglass, resins, and woodworking industries, as well as construction, garment, iron foundry, and tannery workers; (2) historical cohort studies and nested case-control studies of health professionals, including physicians, pathologists, anatomists, embalmers, and funeral directors; (3) population-based cohort or cancer registry studies; and (4) population-based or occupationally based case-control incidence or mortality studies of specific cancer endpoints. In addition, several studies have re-analyzed data from specific cohort or case-control studies or have conducted pooled analyses or meta-analyses for specific cancer endpoints. The largest study available to date is the cohort mortality study of combined mixed industries conducted by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). This cohort includes 25,691 male and female workers, enrolled from 10 different formaldehyde-producing or -using plants, employed before 1966 and followed most recently to 1994 and 2004, most of whom were exposed to formaldehyde (Hauptmann et al. 2003, 2004 and Beane Freeman et al. 2009). Quantitative exposure data were used to construct job-exposure matrices for individual workers, some of whom experienced peak exposures to formaldehyde >/= 4 ppm. This cohort is the only study in which exposure-response relationships between peak, average, cumulative, and duration of exposure and mortality for multiple cancer sites were investigated. Two other large cohort studies are available: (1) a large multi-plant cohort study (N = 14,014) of workers in six chemical manufacturing plants in the United Kingdom (Coggon et al. 2003), which calculated SMRs among ever-exposed and highly exposed workers for formaldehyde, and (2) a NIOSH cohort of garment workers (N = 11,039) (Pinkerton et al. 2004) which evaluated mortality for duration of exposure, time since first exposure, and year of first exposure to formaldehyde for selected cancer sites. The other cohort studies (for both industrial and health professional workers) were smaller, and in general only reported mortality or incidence for ever-exposed workers in external (SMR or PMR) analyses, although some of the studies of health professional workers attempted indirect measures of exposure (such as length in a professional membership) as a proxy for exposure duration. Several of the nested case-control studies attempted to evaluate exposure-response relationships, but were limited by small numbers of exposed cases, and many of the population-based case-control studies lacked quantitative data or sufficient numbers of cases to evaluate exposure-response relationships. However, the nested case-control study of lymphohematopoietic, nasopharyngeal, and brain cancers among U.S. embalmers and funeral directors by Hauptmann et al. (2009) had large numbers of exposed cases of lymphohematopoietic cancer and used both questionnaire- and experimental model-based exposure metrics of exposure, including average, cumulative, peak, and duration of exposure, and number of embalmings. [Since most of the cohorts have relatively low statistical power to evaluate rare cancers such as sinonasal and nasopharyngeal cancers, case-control studies are generally more informative for these outcomes.] Findings across studies for cancer sites that have been the principal focus of investigation are summarized below. Sinonasal cancers: In cohort studies, increased risks of sinonasal cancers were observed among male (SPIR = 2.3, 95% CI = 1.3 to 4.0, 13 exposed cases) and female (SPIR = 2.4, 95% CI = 0.6 to 6.0, 4 exposed cases) Danish workers exposed to formaldehyde (Hansen and Olsen 1995, 1996) and among formaldehyde-exposed workers in the NCI cohort (SMR = 1.19, 95% CI = 0.38 to 3.68, 3 deaths) (Hauptmann et al. 2004). One death from squamous-cell sinonasal cancer was reported in the study of tannery workers among formaldehyde-exposed workers by Stern et al. (1987). No increase in risk was found among formaldehyde-exposed workers in the other large cohort studies (Coggon et al. 2003, Pinkerton et al. 2004). The smaller cohort studies did not report findings or did not observe any deaths for this specific endpoint. [Sinonasal cancers are rare, and even the larger cohort studies have insufficient numbers of exposed workers and expected deaths (e.g., approximately three in the NCI cohort) to be very informative.] Of the six case-control studies reviewed, four (Olsen et al. 1984 and Olsen and Asnaes 1986; Hayes et al. 1986; Roush et al. 1987; and Luce et al. 1993) reported an association between sinonasal cancers and formaldehyde exposure; statistically significant risks were found in three studies among individuals ever exposed to formaldehyde or with higher probabilities or levels of exposure (Olsen et al. 1994 and Olsen and Asnaes 1986; Hayes et al. 1986; and Luce et al. 1993). All of these studies found elevated risks among individuals with low or no exposure to wood dust or after adjusting for exposure to wood dust. Stronger associations were found for adenocarcinoma, with higher risks for this endpoint observed among individuals with higher average and cumulative exposure, duration of exposure, and earlier dates of first exposure (Luce et al. 1993). A pooled analysis of 12 case-control studies of sinonasal cancer from seven countries (Luce et al. 2002) found statistically significant increases in adenocarcinoma among subjects in the highest exposure groups (OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 1.5 to 5.7, 91 exposed cases for men, adjusted for wood dust exposure; and OR = 6.2, 95% CI = 2.0 to 19.7, 5 exposed cases for women, unadjusted for wood dust exposure). For squamous-cell carcinoma, the corresponding ORs were 1.2 (95% CI = 0.8 to 1.8, 30 exposed cases) for men and 1.5 (95% CI = 0.6 to 3.8, 6 exposed cases) for women; neither OR was adjusted for wood dust exposure. A statistically significant increase in risk for sinonasal cancers (mRR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.4 to 2.3, 933 deaths) was found in a meta-analysis of 11 case-control studies by Collins et al. (1997); however, no increase in risks was found in meta-analyses of three cohort studies by Collins et al. (1987) or in eight industrial cohort studies by Bosetti et al. (2008). Nasopharyngeal cancers: Similar to sinonasal cancers, nasopharyngeal cancers are rare [and most of the risk estimates reported in the cohort studies are based on small numbers of expected cases or deaths]. Among cohort studies, a statistically significant increase in mortality from nasopharyngeal cancer was observed in the large NCI cohort (SMR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.05 to 4.21, 8 deaths) (Hauptmann et al. 2004), and statistically nonsignificant elevated risks were observed among white embalmers from the United States (PMR = 1.89, 95% CI = 0.39 to 5.48, 3 deaths) (Hayes et al. 1990) and among male Danish workers exposed to formaldehyde (SPIR = 1.3, 95% CI = 0.3 to 3.2, 4 cases) (Hansen and Olsen 1995, 1996). One incident case of nasopharyngeal cancer was reported among Swedish workers in the abrasive materials industry (expected deaths not reported, but only 506 workers were potentially exposed) (Edling et al. 1987b). No associations between formaldehyde exposure and nasopharyngeal cancer were found in the other two large cohorts: one death was observed (vs. 2 expected) in the British chemical workers cohort (Coggon et al. 2003) and no deaths were observed (vs. 0.96 expected) in the NIOSH cohort (Pinkerton et al. 2004). The other, smaller, cohort studies did not report findings or did not observe any deaths for nasopharyngeal cancer. Exposure-response relationships between formaldehyde exposure and nasopharyngeal cancer were evaluated in the large NCI cohort study. Among seven exposed and two unexposed deaths, relative risks of nasopharyngeal cancers increased with cumulative exposure (Ptrend = 0.025 among exposed groups) and with peak and average exposure (Ptrend = 0.044 and 0.126, respectively, across exposed and unexposed groups, using unexposed as the referent as no deaths were observed in the lowest exposed group). Adjustment for duration of exposure to a number of potentially confounding substances and plant type did not substantively alter the findings. Most of the deaths occurred at one factory (Plant 1), which appears to have had the largest numbers of highly exposed workers. In a nested case-control analysis of nasopharyngeal deaths in this plant, Marsh et al. (2007b) reported that several of the nasopharyngeal cancers occurred among workers with previous employment in metal-working occupations. Six of the nine available case-control studies reported increases in nasopharyngeal cancers in association with probable exposure to formaldehyde or at higher levels or duration of estimated exposure (Olsen et al. 1984 [women only], Vaughan et al. 1986a, Roush et al. 1987, West et al. 1993, Vaughan et al. 2000, and Hildesheim et al. 2001). Risks of nasopharyngeal cancers increased with exposure duration and cumulative exposure in two population-based case-control studies (Vaughan et al. 2000, Hildesheim et al. 2001). In some studies, higher risks were found among individuals in the high-exposure groups (Vaughan et al. 1986a, Roush et al 1987), or with more years since first exposure (West et al. 1993), and some studies reported that risks were still elevated after taking into account smoking (Vaughan et al. 2000, Vaughan et al. 1986a, West et al. 1993) or exposure to wood dust (Hildesheim et al. 2001, Vaughan et al. 2000, West et al. 1993). No associations between nasopharyngeal cancer and formaldehyde exposure were found in population-based case-control studies in Denmark (Olsen et al. 1984 [men only]), and Malaysia (Armstrong et al. 2000), a case-cohort study among Chinese textile workers (Li et al. 2006), or in a nested case-control study among embalmers (Hauptmann et al. 2009). Several meta-analyses were available. A statistically significant increase in risk (mRR = 1.3, 95% CI = 1.2 to 1.5, 455 deaths) was reported in a large meta-analysis of 12 case-control and cohort studies (Collins et al. 1997), and a nonsignificant increase in risk in a small meta-analysis of three other cohort mortality studies (SMR = 1.33, 95% CI = 0.69 to 2.56, 9 deaths) (Bosetti et al. 2008). Bachand et al. (2010) reported a borderline statistically significant risk in a meta-analysis of seven case-control studies (mRR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.00 to 1.50) but did not find an increase in risk (mRR = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.4 to 1.29) in an analysis of data from six cohort studies, which excluded Plant 1 of the NCI cohort and used the re-analysis data from Marsh et al. (2005) for the other plants. [The Bachand meta-analysis used data for all pharyngeal cancer or buccal cavity cancer from some cohort studies and one case-control study, however.] Other head and neck cancers, and respiratory cancer Most of the cohort studies reported risk estimates for cancers of the buccal cavity, pharynx, larynx, and lung, or combinations of these cancers. Most of these studies, including two of the large cohorts (Pinkerton et al. 2004 and Coggon et al. 2003), three of the professional health worker studies (Hayes et al. 1990, Walrath and Fraumeni 1983 and 1984), and two of the smaller industrial cohorts (Andjelkovich et al. 1995 and Hansen and Olsen 1995, 1996) found elevated (between approximately 10% and 30%) but statistically nonsignificant risks for cancers of the buccal cavity or buccal cavity and pharynx combined; risk estimates were usually based on small numbers of deaths or cases. In the NCI cohort, increased risks for all upper respiratory cancers or buccal cavity cancer combined were generally found among workers in the highest categories of exposure (compared with the lowest category), but trends were not statistically significant (Hauptmann et al. 2004). Most of the population-based or nested case-control studies that reported on head and neck cancers found small increases (usually statistically nonsignificant) in risks for formaldehyde exposure and cancers of the buccal cavity and pharynx (or parts of the pharynx) (Vaughan et al. 1986a, Merletti et al. 1991, Gustavsson et al. 1998, Laforest et al. 2000, Marsh et al. 2002, Wilson et al. 2004, Berrino et al. 2003) or of the upper respiratory tract (Partanen et al. 1990). Exposure-response relationships were not clear in most of the available studies; however, positive exposure-response relationships between probability and duration of exposure and cancers of the hypopharynx and larynx combined were reported by Laforest et al. (2000) and between combined probability and intensity of exposure and salivary cancer by Wilson et al. (2004). No associations between formaldehyde exposure and pharyngeal cancers (subtypes or combinations) were observed in case-control studies by Shangina et al. (2006) and Tarvainen et al. (2008). Most of the cohort studies and two of the four available case-control studies found no association between formaldehyde exposure and laryngeal cancer. Two case-control studies (Wortley et al. 1992, Shangina et al. 2006) reported increased risk among subjects with the highest exposure to formaldehyde. Small excesses of mortality or incidence of cancers of the lung or respiratory system among formaldehyde-exposed workers were observed in four cohort studies (Andjelkovich et al. 1995, Dell and Teta 1995, Hansen and Olsen 1996 [women only], and Coggon et al. 2003). A statistically significant increase in risk of lung cancer was observed in the large study of British chemical workers (SMR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.12 to 1.32, 594 deaths, among all workers) (Coggon et al. 2003). In this study, risks increased with increasing exposure level (Ptrend < 0.001) but not with duration of exposure. No association between formaldehyde exposure and lung cancer was observed in the other two large cohorts (Pinkerton et al. 2004, Hauptmann et al. 2004), in several of the smaller cohorts (Bertazzi et al. 1989, Hansen and Olsen 1995 [in men], Edling et al. 1987b, Stellman et al. 1998, Stern 2003), or in the six studies of health professional workers. Findings from the population-based or nested case-control studies were also mixed. Increases in risk were reported in several studies (De Stefani et al. 2005, Gérin et al. 1989, Andjelkovich et al. 1994, Chiazze et al. 1997), and were statistically significant in two studies (Marsh et al. 2001, Coggon et al. 1984). Risks did not increase with increasing exposure in most of the studies. An exception is the study by De Stefani et al. (2005), in which a statistically significant trend with duration of employment was observed. No association between lung cancer and formaldehyde exposure was reported in three other occupational case-control studies (Bond et al. 1986, Jensen and Andersen 1982, Partanen et al. 1990) and one population-based study (Brownson et al. 1993). Lymphohematopoietic cancers: Among workers in the NCI cohort study, peak exposure to formaldehyde was associated with increased mortality for several types of lymphohematopoietic cancers (Beane Freeman et al. 2009). For all lymphohematopoietic cancers combined, for leukemias combined, and for myeloid leukemia, relative risks increased with increasing peak exposure: statistically significant increased risks were found among workers with the highest peak exposure (>/= 4 ppm) vs. the lowest exposed category for all lymphohematopoietic cancers (RR = 1.37, 95% CI = 1.03 to 1.81, 108 deaths, Ptrend = 0.02), and statistically nonsignificant increases for all leukemias combined and peak exposure >/= 4 ppm (RR = 1.42, 95% CI = 0.92 to 2.18, 48 deaths, Ptrend = 0.12) and for myeloid leukemia and peak exposure >/= 4 ppm (RR = 1.78, 95% CI = 0.87 to 3.64, 19 deaths, Ptrend = 0.13; trends among exposed person-years). No associations were found with cumulative or average exposure. An excess of leukemia, especially myeloid leukemia, was also found among garment workers in the large NIOSH cohort (Pinkerton et al. 2004), but not in the British chemical workers cohort (Coggon et al. 2003). In the NIOSH cohort, risks for leukemia, myeloid leukemia, and acute myeloid leukemia were higher among workers with longer duration of exposure (10+ yrs), longer time since first exposure (20+ years), and among those exposed prior to 1963 (when formaldehyde exposure was thought to be higher) (Pinkerton et al. 2004). In the smaller industrial cohort studies, some studies reported excesses for all lymphohematopoietic cancers combined among formaldehyde-exposed workers (Bertazzi et al. 1989, Stellman et al. 1998) or leukemia (Hansen and Olsen 1995, 1996), but others observed no association for all lymphohematopoietic cancers combined (Andjelkovich et al. 1995, Stern 2003, Pinkerton et al. 2004) or leukemia (Andjelkovich et al. 1995, Stellman et al. 1998, Stern 2003). Each of the six cohort studies of health professionals, and the nested case-control study of embalmers from three of these studies, found elevated mortality for lymphohematopoietic cancers. Hall et al. (1991), Hayes et al. (1990), Stroup et al. (1986), Levine et al. (1984) and Walrath and Fraumeni (1983, 1984) reported increases in risk for all lymphohematopoietic cancers combined and for leukemia. Most estimates were statistically nonsignificant with the exception of the studies of Hayes et al. (1990) and Stroup et al. (1986), where statistically significant excess mortality was found for all leukemia combined or for myeloid leukemia in association with formaldehyde exposure. In the nested case-control study by Hauptmann et al. (2009), sufficient numbers of cases of lymphohematopoietic cancer deaths among embalmers and funeral directors were identified to enable evaluation of exposure-response relationships, using models of potential formaldehyde exposure. A significant increase in nonlymphoid lymphohematopoietic cancers was observed among ever-embalmers (OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 1.0 to 9.5, 44 exposed cases), and significant increases in risk were observed at the highest levels of cumulative, average, and peak exposure. Most of the increase was attributable to myeloid leukemia, which was significantly elevated among ever-embalmers (OR = 11.2, 95% CI = 1.3 to 95.6, 33 exposed cases) and showed significant trends with duration of exposure and peak exposure, and a more attenuated trend with 8-hour time-weighted average intensity of exposure. In further analyses of non-lymphoid lymphohematopoietic cancers using workers with < 500 lifetime embalmings as the reference group, statistically significant increases in relative risks were found among workers with the longest duration of working in jobs with embalming, the highest number of lifetime embalmings, and the highest cumulative exposure to formaldehyde. With respect to other case-control studies, a population-based study found no clear association between leukemia and exposure to formaldehyde (Blair et al. 2001), and two nested case-control studies reported statistically nonsignificant increases in leukemia risk based on small numbers of exposed cases (Partanen et al. 1993, Ott et al. 1989). Few cohort or case-control studies reported findings for subtypes of lymphohematopoietic cancers other than leukemia. Most of the cohort studies had relatively low power to detect effects, and either did not report findings or did not evaluate exposure-response relationships. For Hodgkin's lymphoma, the NCI study was the only cohort or case-control study that reported an increase in risk. In an external analysis, an SMR of 1.42 (95% CI = 0.96 to 2.10, 25 deaths) was observed among formaldehyde-exposed workers and, in internal analyses, statistically significant exposure-response relationships were observed with peak (Ptrend = 0.01 among the exposed group) and average exposure (Ptrend = 0.05 among the exposed group), but not with cumulative exposure (Beane Freeman et al. 2009). For non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, statistically non-significant increases in risks were observed in one cohort study (Hayes et al. 1990), and in most of the population-based or nested case-control studies (Partanen et al. 1993, Ott et al. 1989, Richardson et al. 2008, Wang et al. 2009a, Tatham et al. 1997, Blair et al. 1993). The risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (large B cell type) increased with increasing probability of exposure (Ptrend < 0.01) in a large case-control incidence study of U.S. women (Wang et al. 2009a). No increase in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was reported in the population-based case-control study by Gérin et al. (1989), or in the nested case-control study of embalmers by Hauptmann et al. (2009). For multiple myeloma, peak exposure of >/= 4 ppm was associated with a statistically significant increase in risk in the NCI cohort (RR = 2.04, 95% CI = 1.01 to 4.12, 21 deaths, Ptrend = 0.08 among the exposed group) (Beane Freeman et al. 2009), although an increase in risk was also seen among unexposed workers for this endpoint. Increased risks also were seen among British chemical workers (Coggon et al. 2003), abrasive materials workers (Edling et al. 1987b), and U.S. embalmers (Hayes et al. 1990). Other cohort studies did not find associations, based on small numbers of observed deaths or cases, or did not report findings. Among case-control studies, statistically nonsignificant increases in risks were observed by Boffetta et al. (1989), Pottern et al. (1992) (women only), and Hauptmann et al. (2009), but not by Heineman et al. (1992) (men only). Several meta-analyses were available. (Hauptmann et al. [2009] was not available for any of the analyses.) Statistically significant risks were reported for all lymphohematopoietic cancers and leukemia among cohort studies of health professionals by Bosetti et al. (2008) (RR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.16 to 1.47, 263 deaths for all lymphohematopoietic cancers; and RR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.15 to 1.68, 106 deaths for leukemia) and among studies of occupations with known high formaldehyde exposure by Zhang et al. (2009a), (mRR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.09 to 1.43, 19 studies for all lymphohematopoietic cancers combined; mRR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.18 to 2.00, P < 0.001, 15 studies for leukemia; and mRR = 1.90, 95% CI = 1.31 to 2.76, P = 0.001, 6 studies for myeloid leukemia. A statistically nonsignificant increase in leukemia risk was also estimated among the combined studies of health professional workers by Bachand et al. (2010). No increased risks for leukemia were found in the available meta-analyses of industrial cohorts (Bosetti et al. 2008, Bachand et al. 2010), or combined cohort and case-control studies (Collins and Lineker 2004). Other cancer sites: With the exception of brain and central nervous system cancers, few of the cohort studies reported consistently elevated risks for cancers at other sites. Few case-control studies of other cancer endpoints have been conducted. Excess mortality from brain and central nervous system cancers has been reported in each of the six cohort studies of health professionals, with statistically significant SMRs/PMRs (1.94 to 2.7) reported in three studies (Stroup et al. 1986, Walrath and Fraumeni 1983, 1984). However, in the nested case-control analysis of brain cancers among embalmers and funeral directors by Hauptmann et al. (2009), which used subjects from cohort studies of Hayes et al. (1990) and Walrath and Fraumeni (1983, 1984), a statistically nonsignificant increase in brain cancers was observed in association with ever-embalming (OR = 1.9, 95% CI = 0.7 to 5.3, 42 exposed cases).

There were no clear exposure-response patterns with duration of employment in embalming jobs, or estimated cumulative, peak, or average exposure to formaldehyde, however. No increases in brain and central nervous system cancers have been observed in the industrial cohort studies that have reported findings. A meta-analysis by Bosetti et al. (2008) reported a statistically significant increase in the risk of brain cancer among health professional workers (RR = 1.56, 95% CI = 1.24 to 1.96, 74 deaths), but not among industrial workers. Several industrial studies have reported increases in one or more of stomach, colon, rectal, and kidney cancers, and a case-control study of pancreatic cancer (Kernan et al. 1999) suggested an increase in this endpoint at higher levels of formaldehyde exposure. Two meta-analyses of pancreatic cancer (Ojajärvi et al. 2000, Collins et al. 2001) showed no consistent increase in risk across studies, however, with the exception of a borderline statistically significant increase among pathologists, anatomists and embalmers. Studies in Experimental Animals: Formaldehyde has been tested for carcinogenicity in mice, rats, and hamsters. Studies reviewed include chronic and subchronic inhalation studies in mice, rats, and hamsters; chronic and subchronic drinking-water studies in rats; and one chronic skin-application study in mice. No chronic studies in primates were found, but one subchronic inhalation study and one acute/subacute inhalation study in monkeys was reviewed. [Several of these studies were limited by a small number of animals per group, short exposure duration, short study duration, incomplete pathology or data reporting, and/or incomplete statistical analysis.] Formaldehyde exposure resulted in nasal tumors (primarily the extremely rare squamous-cell carcinoma) in several strains of rats when administered chronically by inhalation (Kerns et al. 1983a, Sellakumar et al. 1985, Appelman et al. 1988, Woutersen et al. 1989, Monticello et al. 1996, Kamala et al. 1997). Only two inhalation studies in mice or hamsters were found. No tumors were reported in C3H mice exposed to formaldehyde at 200 mg/m3 [163 ppm] for 1 hour/day, 3 days/week, for 35 weeks (Horton et al. 1963), but squamous-cell carcinoma of the nasal cavity occurred in 2 of 17 B6C3F1 male mice exposed at 14.3 ppm for 6 hours/day, 5 days/week, and sacrificed at 24 months (Kerns et al. 1983a). Although the increase was not statistically significant, the authors concluded that the tumors were exposure-related. [Biological significance is implied because these tumors are extremely rare in non-exposed mice and rats; no nasal squamous-cell carcinomas have been observed in more than 2,800 B6C3F1 mice and 2,800 F344 rats used as controls in NTP inhalation studies.] No tumors were reported in Syrian golden hamsters exposed at 10 ppm 5 hours/day, 5 days/week for life (Dalbey 1982) or at 2.95 ppm 22 hours/day, 7 days/week for 26 weeks (Rusch et al. 1983). No tumors occurred in male cynomolgus monkeys exposed at 2.95 ppm for 22 hours/day, 7 days/week for 26 weeks (Rusch et al. 1983) or in male rhesus monkeys exposed at 6 ppm for 6 hours/day, 5 days/week for 6 weeks (Monticello et al. 1989); however, squamous metaplasia and hyperplasia in the nasal passages and respiratory epithelia of the trachea and major bronchi occurred. Male Wistar rats administered formaldehyde in drinking water at 5,000 ppm for 32 weeks developed forestomach tumors (squamous-cell papillomas) in one study (Takahashi et al. 1986); however, in two other drinking-water studies, no tumors were reported in either male or female Wistar rats administered formaldehyde at concentrations ranging from 20 to 5,000 ppm for two years (Til et al. 1989, Tobe et al. 1989). In another study, male and female Sprague-Dawley breeder rats administered formaldehyde at 2,500 ppm in drinking water. Offspring of these breeder rats exposed transplacentally beginning on gestation day 13 and postnatally via drinking water for life showed increased incidences of benign and malignant tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly intestinal leiomyosarcoma (a very rare tumor). Male Sprague-Dawley rats administered formaldehyde at concentrations up to 1,500 ppm showed increased incidences (compared with control groups given tap water) of the number of animals bearing malignant tumors, hemolymphoreticular neoplasms (leukemia and lymphoma combined), and testicular tumors (interstitial-cell adenoma) (Soffritti et al. 2002a). Compared with the vehicle control group (tap water containing 15 mg/L methanol), the incidence of testicular tumors was significantly higher in the 1,000-ppm exposure group, and the incidence of hemolymphoreticular tumors was higher in the 1,500-ppm exposure group. Female rats in the 1,500-ppm exposure group showed higher incidences of malignant mammary-gland tumors and hemolymphoreticular neoplasms than the tap-water control group; however, the incidences were not significantly higher than in the vehicle control group. In addition, some rare stomach and intestinal tumors occurred in a few male and female rats in the exposed groups but not in the control groups. Other studies examined the promoting effects of formaldehyde when administered after initiation with DBMA, DEN, MNU, or MNNG or cocarcinogenic effects when administered with coal tar, benzo[a]pyrene, wood dust, and hydrogen chloride. Some of these studies did not show an enhanced tumor response. However, a few studies, including a skin-painting study in mice (Iverson et al. 1986), a drinking-water study in rats (Takahashi et al. 1986), and inhalation studies in rats (Albert et al. 1982, Holmström et al. 1989a) and hamsters (Dalbey et al. 1986), indicated that formaldehyde could act as a tumor promoter or act as a co-carcinogen when administered with other substances.

Adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion: Formaldehyde is a metabolic intermediate that is essential for the biosynthesis of purines, thymidine, and some amino acids. The metabolism of formaldehyde is similar in all mammalian species studied. Differences in distribution following inhalation exposure can be related to anatomical differences. For example, rats are obligate nose breathers while monkeys and humans are oronasal breathers. Thus, in humans, some inhaled formaldehyde will bypass the nasal passages and deposit directly into the lower respiratory tract. The endogenous concentrations in the blood of humans, rats, and monkeys are about 2 to 3 mug/g and do not increase after ingestion or inhalation of formaldehyde from exogenous sources (Casanova et al. 1988, Heck et al. 1985, Heck and Casonova 2004). Although formaldehyde is rapidly and almost completely absorbed from the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts, it is poorly absorbed from intact skin. When absorbed after inhalation or ingestion, very little formaldehyde reaches the systemic circulation because it is rapidly metabolized by glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase and S-formyl-glutathione hydrolase to formic acid, which is excreted in the urine or oxidized to carbon dioxide and exhaled (IARC 2006). Formaldehyde reaching the circulation is rapidly hydrated to methanediol, which is the predominant form in the circulation (Fox et al. 1985). Although the metabolic pathways are the same in all tissues, the data indicate that the route of absorption does affect the route of elimination. When inhaled, exhalation is the primary route of elimination; however, when ingested, urinary excretion as formate is more important. Unmetabolized formaldehyde reacts non-enzymatically with sulfhydryl groups or urea, binds to tetrahydrofolate and enters the single-carbon intermediary metabolic pool, reacts with macromolecules to form DNA and protein adducts, or forms crosslinks primarily between protein and single-stranded DNA (Bolt 1987). Toxic effects: Formaldehyde is a highly reactive chemical that causes tissue irritation and damage on contact. Formaldehyde concentrations that have been associated with various toxic effects in humans show wide interindividual variation and are route dependent. Symptoms are rare at concentrations below 0.5 ppm; however, upper airway and eye irritation, changes in odor threshold, and neurophysiological effects (e.g., insomnia, memory loss, mood alterations, nausea, fatigue) have been reported at concentrations </= 0.1 ppm. The most commonly reported effects include eye, nose, throat, and skin irritation. Other effects include allergic contact dermatitis, histopathological abnormalities (e.g., hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, and mild dysplasia) of the nasal mucosa, occupational asthma, reduced lung function, altered immune response, and hemotoxicity (IARC 2006). Some studies of Chinese workers suggest that long-term exposure to formaldehyde can cause leucopenia, and one study reported that a significantly higher percentage of formaldehyde-exposed workers had blood cell abnormalities (leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, and depressed serum hemoglobin levels) compared with unexposed controls (reviewed by Tang et al. 2009). Zhang et al. (2010) reported that Chinese factory workers exposed to high levels of formaldehyde had significantly lower counts of white blood cells, granulocytes, platelets, red blood cells and lymphocytes than unexposed controls. In vitro studies indicated that formaldehyde exposure caused a significant, dose-related decrease in colony forming progenitor cells (Zhang et al. 2010). Other studies have shown that formaldehyde exposure affects changes in the percentage of lymphocyte subsets (Ying et al. 1999, Ye et al. 2005).

Higher rates of spontaneous abortion and low birth weights have been reported among women occupationally exposed to formaldehyde (IARC 2006, Saurel-Cubizolles et al. 1994). Oral exposure is rare, but there have been several apparent suicides and attempted suicides in which individuals drank formaldehyde. These data indicate that the lethal dose is 60 to 90 mL (Bartone et al. 1968, Yanagawa et al. 2007). Formaldehyde ingestion results in severe corrosive damage to the gastrointestinal tract followed by CNS depression, myocardial depression, circulatory collapse, metabolic acidosis, and multiple organ failure. The toxic effects of formaldehyde in experimental animals include irritation, cytotoxicity, and cell proliferation in the upper respiratory tract, ocular irritation, pulmonary hyperactivity, bronchoconstriction, gastrointestinal irritation, and skin sensitization. Other reported effects include oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, neurobehavioral effects, immunotoxicity, testicular toxicity, and decreased liver, thyroid gland, and testis weights (IARC 2006, Aslan et al. 2006, Sarsilmaz et al. 2007, Golalipour et al. 2008, Ozen et al. 2005, Majumder and Kumar 1995). In vitro studies have demonstrated that formaldehyde is directly cytotoxic and affects cell viability, cell differentiation and growth, cell proliferation, gene expression, membrane integrity, mucociliary action, apoptosis, and thiol and ion homeostasis (IARC 2006). Since metabolism of formaldehyde is glutathione-dependent, cells depleted of glutathione are more susceptible to formaldehyde toxicity (Ku and Killings 1984). Carcinogenicity of metabolites and analogues Formic acid (formate + H+), the major metabolite of formaldehyde, has not been tested for carcinogenic effects. Acetaldehyde, an analogue of formaldehyde, is listed as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen by the NTP (2004). Acetaldehyde induced respiratory tract tumors in rats (adenocarcinoma and squamous-cell carcinoma of the nasal mucosa) and laryngeal carcinoma in hamsters. In addition, epidemiological studies have reported increased risks of cancers of the upper digestive tract (esophagus, oral cavity, and pharynx) and upper respiratory tract (larynx and bronchi) in humans (Salaspuro 2009). Glutaraldehyde and benzaldehyde have also been tested for carcinogenicity in 2-year bioassays by the NTP. Glutaraldehyde was not considered to be carcinogenic in rats or mice, and benzaldehyde was not considered to be carcinogenic in rats. The NTP concluded that there was some evidence of carcinogenicity for benzaldehyde in mice based on an increased incidence of squamous-cell papilloma and hyperplasia in the forestomachs of male and female mice (NTP 1999).

Genetic and related effects: Formaldehyde is a direct-acting genotoxic compound that affects multiple gene expression pathways, including those involved in DNA synthesis and repair and regulation of cell proliferation. Most studies in bacteria were positive for forward or reverse mutations without metabolic activation and for microsatellite induction (Mu and Harris 1988). Studies in non-mammalian eukaryotes and plants also were positive for forward and reverse mutations, dominant lethal and sex-linked recessive lethal mutations, and DNA single-strand breaks (Conaway et al. 1996, IARC 2006). In vitro studies with mammalian and human cells were positive for DNA adducts, DNA-protein crosslinks, DNA-DNA crosslinks, unscheduled DNA synthesis, single-strand breaks, mutations, and cytogenetic effects (chromosomal aberrations, sister chromatid exchange, and micronucleus induction). In in vivo studies in rats, formaldehyde caused DNA-protein crosslinks (in the nasal mucosa and fetal liver but not bone marrow) (Casanova-Schmitz et al. 1994a, Wang and Liu 2006), DNA strand breaks (lymphocytes and liver) (Im et al. 2006, Wang and Liu 2006), dominant lethal mutations (Kitaeva et al. 1990, Odegiah 1997), chromosomal aberrations (pulmonary lavage cells and bone marrow in one of two studies) (Dallas et al. 1992, Kitaeva et al. 1990), and micronucleus induction in the gastrointestinal tract (Migliore et al. 1989). However, it did not induce sister chromatid exchange or chromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes or micronucleus formation in peripheral blood (Kilgerman et al. 1984, Speit et al. 2009). Mutations in the p53 gene were detected in nasal squamous-cell carcinomas from rats (Recio et al. 1992). Inhalation exposure to formaldehyde also induced DNA-protein crosslinks in the nasal turbinates, nasopharynx, trachea, and bronchi of rhesus monkeys (Casanova et al. 1991). In mice, formaldehyde exposure did not cause dominant lethal mutations (Epstein et al. 1972, Epstein and Shafner 1968), micronucleus induction (Gocke et al. 1981), or chromosomal aberrations (Fontignie-Houbrechts 1981, Natarajan et al. 1983) when exposed by intraperitoneal injection or induce micronuclei by intravenous or oral exposure (Morita et al. 1997), but did induce heritable mutations when exposed by inhalation (Liu et al. 2009b). In studies of lymphocytes from health professional workers exposed to formaldehyde, higher levels of formaldehyde-albumin adducts were found in workers exposed to relatively high concentrations compared with workers exposed to lower concentrations (Pala et al. 2008) and higher levels of DNA-protein crosslinks, strand breaks, and pantropic p53 protein levels were found in exposed workers compared with unexposed workers (Shaham et al. 2003). Wang et al. (2009) found higher levels of DNA adducts (N6-hydroxymethyldeoxyadenosine [N6 HOMe dAdo]) among smokers compared with non-smokers; however, the source of formaldehyde is not clear (for example, it could be formaldehyde in tobacco or a metabolite of a tobacco-specific compound). Numerous studies have evaluated chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchange in lymphocytes and micronucleus induction in lymphocytes, or nasal or oral epithelial cells from humans exposed to formaldehyde (primarily health professionals, but also industrial workers, volunteers and subjects exposed from environmental sources). Among formaldehyde-exposed subjects, statistically significant increased frequencies (compared with unexposed, low exposure or pre- exposure vs. post-exposure) of cytogenetic damage in lymphocytes were observed for chromosomal aberrations in 7 of 12 reviewed studies, sister chromatid exchanges in 6 of 12 studies and micronuclei induction in 5 of 7 studies reviewed. In addition to these studies, Zhang et al. (2010) reported that lymphocytes from workers exposed to high levels of formaldehyde had statistically increased frequency of monosomy of chromosome 7 and trisomy of chromosome 8. Statistically significant increased frequencies of micronuclei were also observed in the buccal cavity or oral epithelium in four of five reviewed studies and in the nasal epithelium in all five available studies (Note that findings from two studies, Suruda et al. [1993] and Tikenko-Holland et al. [1996], evaluating the same study participants are treated as one study in this count). In addition to these studies, a review of cytogenetic studies in the Chinese literature on formaldehyde-exposed workers reported increased incidences of chromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes (one study) and micronuclei in lymphocytes and nasal epithelial cells (one study each); however, two studies did find increases in sister chromatid exchanges in lymphocytes. Regulation of gene expression by formaldehyde was investigated in eight studies. Formaldehyde exposure increased expression of genes involved in intracellular adhesion, inflammation, xenobiotic metabolism, nucleic acid metabolism, cell-cycle regulation, apoptosis, and DNA repair. Thus, multiple biochemical pathways are affected by formaldehyde exposure. Mechanistic considerations: Although the biological mechanisms associated with formaldehyde-induced cancer are not completely understood, it is important to recognize that chemicals can act through multiple toxicity pathways and mechanisms to induce cancer or other health effects (Guyton et al. 2009). Potential carcinogenic modes of actions for formaldehyde include DNA reactivity (covalent binding), gene mutation, chromosomal breakage, aneuploidy, and epigenetic effects. Studies evaluating nasal tumors in rats have shown that regional dosimetry, genotoxicity, and cytotoxicity are believed to be important factors. Computational fluid dynamics models have been developed to predict and compare local flux values in the nasal passages of rats (Kimbrell et al. 1993, 1997), monkeys (Kepler et al. 1998), and humans (Subramaniam et al. 1998). Regions of the nasal passages with the highest flux values are the regions most likely affected by formaldehyde exposure. Similar flux values were predicted for rats and monkeys for regions of the nasal passages with elevated cell proliferation rates, thus providing support for the hypothesis that formaldehyde flux is a key factor for determining toxic response. Furthermore, DNA-protein crosslinks and cell-proliferation rates are correlated with the site specificity of tumors (Pala et al. 2008). Cell proliferation is stimulated by the cytotoxic effects of formaldehyde. Increased cell proliferation may contribute to carcinogenesis by increasing the probability of spontaneous or chemically induced mutations. The dose-response curves for DNA-protein crosslinks, cell proliferation, and tumor formation show similar patterns with sharp increases in slope at concentrations greater than 6 ppm. The observed sequence of nasal lesions is as follows: rhinitis, epithelial dysplasia, squamous metaplasia and hyperplasia, and squamous-cell carcinoma. Biological mechanisms have been proposed for the possible association between lymphohematopoietic cancers and formaldehyde exposure. Proposed mechanisms for formaldehyde-induced leukemia are: (1) direct damage to stem cells in the bone marrow, (2) damage to circulating stem cells, and (3) damage to pluripotent stem cells present in the nasal turbinate or olfactory mucosa (Zhang et al. 2009a,b). Evidence in support of the potential for DNA damage to circulating hematopoietic stem cells is that DNA-protein crosslinks have been identified in the nasal passages of laboratory animals exposed to formaldehyde, and increased micronuclei have been identified in the nasal and oral mucosa of formaldehyde-exposed humans. In addition, olfactory epithelial cells obtained from rat nasal passages contain hematopoietic stem cells, which have been shown to re-populate the hematopoietic tissue of irradiated rats (Murrell et al. 2005). However, some authors have questioned the biological plausibility of an association between formaldehyde exposure and leukemia, because formaldehyde is rapidly metabolized, and it would not be expected to enter the systemic circulation (Cole and Axten 2004, Golden et al. 2006, Heck and Casanova 2004, Pyatt et al. 2008). They stated that formaldehyde does not cause bone marrow toxicity or pancytopenia, which are common features of known leukemogens, and that the genotoxic and carcinogenic effects in animals and humans are limited to local effects. (The recent reports of adducts in leukocytes of smokers (Wang et al. 2009b), albumin adducts in medical research workers (Pala et al. 2008), DNA-protein crosslinks measured in peripheral blood cells of hospital workers (Shaham et al. 2003), and the hematologic changes measured by Zhang et al. (2010) suggest that formaldehyde might enter the systemic circulation of humans exposed to formaldehyde.).

PMID: 20737003

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20737003

2009

Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes and environmental chemical contaminants

J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2008 May;11(5-6):373-517.

Wigle DT, Arbuckle TE, Turner MC, Bérubé A, Yang Q, Liu S, Krewski D.

McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. don.wigle@sympatico.ca Abstract This review summarizes the level of epidemiologic evidence for relationships between prenatal and/or early life exposure to environmental chemical contaminants and fetal, child, and adult health. Discussion focuses on fetal loss, intrauterine growth restriction, preterm birth, birth defects, respiratory and other childhood diseases, neuropsychological deficits, premature or delayed sexual maturation, and certain adult cancers linked to fetal or childhood exposures. Environmental exposures considered here include chemical toxicants in air, water, soil/house dust and foods (including human breast milk), and consumer products. Reports reviewed here included original epidemiologic studies (with at least basic descriptions of methods and results), literature reviews, expert group reports, meta-analyses, and pooled analyses. Levels of evidence for causal relationships were categorized as sufficient, limited, or inadequate according to predefined criteria. There was sufficient epidemiological evidence for causal relationships between several adverse pregnancy or child health outcomes and prenatal or childhood exposure to environmental chemical contaminants. These included prenatal high-level methylmercury (CH(3)Hg) exposure (delayed developmental milestones and cognitive, motor, auditory, and visual deficits), high-level prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and related toxicants (neonatal tooth abnormalities, cognitive and motor deficits), maternal active smoking (delayed conception, preterm birth, fetal growth deficit [FGD] and sudden infant death syndrome [SIDS]) and prenatal environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure (preterm birth), low-level childhood lead exposure (cognitive deficits and renal tubular damage), high-level childhood CH(3)Hg exposure (visual deficits), high-level childhood exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) (chloracne), childhood ETS exposure (SIDS, new-onset asthma, increased asthma severity, lung and middle ear infections, and adult breast and lung cancer), childhood exposure to biomass smoke (lung infections), and childhood exposure to outdoor air pollutants (increased asthma severity). Evidence for some proven relationships came from investigation of relatively small numbers of children with high-dose prenatal or early childhood exposures, e.g., CH(3)Hg poisoning episodes in Japan and Iraq. In contrast, consensus on a causal relationship between incident asthma and ETS exposure came only recently after many studies and prolonged debate. There were many relationships supported by limited epidemiologic evidence, ranging from several studies with fairly consistent findings and evidence of dose-response relationships to those where 20 or more studies provided inconsistent or otherwise less than convincing evidence of an association. The latter included childhood cancer and parental or childhood exposures to pesticides. In most cases, relationships supported by inadequate epidemiologic evidence reflect scarcity of evidence as opposed to strong evidence of no effect. This summary points to three main needs: (1) Where relationships between child health and environmental exposures are supported by sufficient evidence of causal relationships, there is a need for (a) policies and programs to minimize population exposures and (b) population-based biomonitoring to track exposure levels, i.e., through ongoing or periodic surveys with measurements of contaminant levels in blood, urine and other samples. (2) For relationships supported by limited evidence, there is a need for targeted research and policy options ranging from ongoing evaluation of evidence to proactive actions. (3) There is a great need for population-based, multidisciplinary and collaborative research on the many relationships supported by inadequate evidence, as these represent major knowledge gaps. Expert groups faced with evaluating epidemiologic evidence of potential causal relationships repeatedly encounter problems in summarizing the available data. A major driver for undertaking such summaries is the need to compensate for the limited sample sizes of individual epidemiologic studies. Sample size limitations are major obstacles to exploration of prenatal, paternal, and childhood exposures during specific time windows, exposure intensity, exposure-exposure or exposure-gene interactions, and relatively rare health outcomes such as childhood cancer. Such research needs call for investments in research infrastructure, including human resources and methods development (standardized protocols, biomarker research, validated exposure metrics, reference analytic laboratories). These are needed to generate research findings that can be compared and subjected to pooled analyses aimed at knowledge synthesis.

PMID: 18470797

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18470797

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all?content=10.1080/10937400801921320

Open Access

Effects of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on mental and motor development in Japanese children at 6 months of age

Environ Health Perspect. 2006 May;114(5):773-8.

Nakajima S, Saijo Y, Kato S, Sasaki S, Uno A, Kanagami N, Hirakawa H, Hori T, Tobiishi K, Todaka T, Nakamura Y, Yanagiya S, Sengoku Y, Iida T, Sata F, Kishi R.

Department of Public Health, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, and Sapporo Toho Hospital, Japan. sonomi@sapmed.ac.jp Abstract Several studies have shown that prenatal and/or postnatal background-level exposure to environmental chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, induces adverse effects on the neurodevelopment of children. However, other studies have not detected any harmful influences on neurodevelopment. Furthermore, except in western countries, no developmental tests have been carried out in relation to detailed assessment of exposure to PCBs and dioxins. In this study (the Hokkaido Study on Environment and Children's Health), the effect of prenatal exposure to background levels of PCBs and dioxins on infant neurodevelopment in Japan/Sapporo was elucidated. The associations between the total or individual isomer level of PCBs and dioxins in 134 Japanese pregnant women's peripheral blood and the mental or motor development of their 6-month-old infants were evaluated using the second edition of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. The mean level of total toxicity equivalency quantity (TEQ) was 18.8 (4.0-51.2) pg/g lipid in blood of 134 mothers. After adjustment for potential confounding variables, the total TEQ value was shown not to be significantly associated with mental developmental index (MDI) or psychomotor developmental index (PDI). However, the levels of one polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) isomer, total PCDDs, and total PCDDs/polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were significantly negatively associated with MDI, and the levels of two PCDD isomers and three PCDF isomers were significantly negatively associated with the PDI. In conclusion, the background-level exposure of several isomers of dioxins during the prenatal period probably affects the motor development of 6-month-old infants more than it does their mental development.

PMID: 16675436

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16675436

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1459935/?tool=pubmed

open access

Talk:Abnormal Development - Chemicals

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2020

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Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes and environmental chemical contaminants

Effects of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on mental and motor development in Japanese children at 6 months of age