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| [[File:Mark_Hill.jpg|90px|left]] This historic 1938 paper by Pearson described development of the hypoglossal nerve.
 
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[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=hypoglossal +nerve+development Search PubMed hypoglossal  nerve development]
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The Hypoglossal Nerve In Human Embryos
 
Anthony A. Pearson
 
Loyola Unyiversity, School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
 
NINE FIGURES
 
INTRODUCTION
 
This paper is the second in a series of studies on the development and analysis of the cranial nerve components in
human embryos. These studies were made on serial sections
of human embryos cut in different planes and stained by
various methods. The methods used in preparing the embryos
have been given in a previous paper (Pearson, ’38).
 
The human embryos referred to specifically in this paper
are listed below with certain necessary data.
 
Human Orowwrump length Probable age ' Method of
embryo no. in millimeters in weeks preparation
H. 1360 17 7 Pyridine silver
H. 1194 25 8 Pyridine silver
15 42 10 Activated protargol
4 43 10 Activated protargol
21 45 10 Activated protargol
22 46 10 Activated protargol
 
Human embryos nos. H. 1360 and H. 1194 belong to the collection of Prof. Gr. W. Bartelmez of The University of Chicago.
The others listed are in the author’s collection. The activated
 
protargol method was used according to the procedure described by Bodian (’37).
 
The author is grateful to Prof. E. C. Crosby for extending
him the privileges of the Anatomical Laboratory of the University of Michigan during the summer of 1938, and for the
use of two series of adult human brain stems stained with
toluidin blue. The author is indebted also to Prof. G. W.
 
 
Bartelmez of The University of Chicago and Prof. Davenport
Hooker of the University of Pittsburgh for the use of several
series in their embryological collections.
 
Since the literature on the comparative anatomy of the XII
cranial nerve has been summarized by Mingazzini (’28), and
Aliens Kappers, Huber and Crosby (’36), only references
pertinent to this discussion will be mentioned here.
 
N UCLEUS OF ORIGIN
 
Streeter (’08) has shown that the motor elements in the
brain stem of a 10 mm. human embryo form a continuous
column which extends from the spinal cord into the medulla
oblongata. A longitudinal division has divided this column
into a medial and a lateral column. The hypoglossal nucleus of
Stilling (1843) differentiates from the medial column.
 
In human embryos of 25 mm. CR length, the hypoglossal
nucleus is still seen as a prolongation of the cervical anterior
gray column into the medulla oblongata (fig. 6). These two
regions fuse without sharply delimiting landmarks. The characteristic cell groupings present in later development cannot
be distinguished.
 
In older stages showing the early development of the pyramids and their decussation, the continuation of the hypoglossal cell column with the anterior horn of the spinal cord
is less evident. The nucleus of the XII nerve is situated on
either side of the median raphe close under the ependyma,
and extends from about the level of the highest root of the X
nerve to a plane passing a little below the obex. The length
of this nucleus is a little less than that of the inferior olive.
The constituent cells are large multipolar neurons in various
stages of development. None of these neurons, however, have
reached the size seen in the adult brain.
 
In human fetuses of 45 mm. or more CR length, the hypoglossal cell column shows-a division into a dorsal and a ventral
cell column. Nearly all of the cell groups present in the
adult are indicated; however, all of these groups have not
as yet completely differentiated.
 
 
The dorsal cell column occurs through the greater part of
the length of the XII nucleus and extends farther cephalad
than the ventral column. The ventral cell column in turn extends a little farther caudad and is located approximately in
the caudal two-thirds of the XII nucleus. The cephalic end of
the dorsal column has become divisible into a medial and a
lateral part (figs. 1 and 2). The medial part is situated
dorsomedial to the somewhat smaller lateral part. The two
are bounded, medially by the nucleus eminentia medialis (or
nucleus eminentia teres); dorsally by vthe. ependyma and
nucleus intercalatus. On tracing these parts caudad, the
nucleus eminentia medialis (fig. 1) soon disappears, and
gradually the nucleus intercalatus grows smaller and changes
from a dorsolateral to a more dorsal position with respect to
 
ABBREVIATIONS
 
a, fibers turning forward out of ramus
descendens and into the XII nerve
 
a.carot.ex., arteria carotis externa
 
a. carot. int., arteria carotis interna
 
a. ling., arteria lingualis
 
a. vert., arteria vertebralis
 
b, sympathetic nerve fibers accompanying the lingual artery
 
01, first cervical nerve
 
can. hyp., canalis hypoglossi
 
c.thyr., cartilago thyreoidea
 
fas. sol., fasciculus solitarius
 
gang. C1, ganglion of the first cervical
nerve
 
gang. C2, ganglion of the
cervical nerve
 
gang. C3, ganglion of the third cervical
nerve
 
second
 
gang. cerv. sup., ' ganglion cervicale
superius trunci sympathici
 
gang. nod. N.‘ X, ganglion nodosum
nervi vagi
 
mand., mandible
 
med.obI., medulla oblongata
m.geniogl., musculus genioglossus
m.geniohy., musculus geniohyoideus
m.hyogl., musculus hyoglossus
 
m. mylohy., musculus mylohyoideus
 
n1. stylogl., musculus styloglossus
 
m. thyreohy., musculus thyreohyoideus
 
n amb., nucleus ambiguus
 
n. d. mo. X, dorsal motor nucleus of X
 
11. em. med., nucleus exninentia medialis
 
n.inter., nucleus intercalatus
 
n. oliv., nucleus olivaris inferior
 
N.IX, nervus glossopharyngeus
 
N.X., nervus vagus
 
N .XII, nervus hypoglossus
 
n. XII, nucleus nervi hypoglossi
 
n.XII d, dorsal group of the ventral
column of the hypoglossal nucleus
 
11. XII 1, lateral group of the dorsal
column of the hypoglossal nucleus
 
11. XII m, medial group of the dorsal
column of the hypoglossal nucleus
 
n.XII v, ventral group of the ventral
column of the hypoglossal nucleus
 
os hyoid., os hyoideum
 
os. occ., os occipitale
 
r. desc., ramus descendens nervi hypoglossi
 
sp. cord, spinal cord
 
submax. g1., submaxillary gland
 
v. jug. int., vena jugularis interna
 
 
Fig.1 A cross section through the medulla oblongata of a human embryo
(no. 22) at the level of the rostral end of the hypoglossal nucleus. Activated
 
protargol preparation (section 37-24). .>( 20.
 
 
 
Fig. 2 A cross section through the medulla oblongata of the same embryo at a
level 9. little in front of the middle of the hypoglossal nucleu. Activated protargol preparation (section 41-2~1). ‘X 20.
 
 
the hypoglossal nucleus. The medial and the lateral parts
of the XII nucleus also become smaller. A little past the midpoint of the hypoglossal cell column the two fuse thus forming
a single cell mass. This cell mass forms the caudal end of the
dorsal column which drops out a little before reaching the
caudal limit of the XII nucleus.
 
In the adult brain the dorsal column of the hypoglossal
nucleus is divisible into two groups which extend through
the whole length of that column. A third group is also
present at certain levels near the cephalic end of the column.
 
 
 
Fig.3 A cross section through the medulla oblongata at a level near the
caudal end of the XII nuclear column. Human embryo no. 22. Activated
protargol preparation (section 45-1-1). )< 20.
 
At about one~third of the length of the hypoglossal nucleus
from its cephalic end, the ventral column of cells gradually
enters the field ventral to the dorsal cell column, and extends
caudally to a little below the level of the obex, where it is lost.
The ventral column in turn is divisible into two parts, a larger
dorsal part and a smaller ventral part (fig. 2). The ventral
part of the ventral column is less well defined. It is com—
posed of darkly staining large multipolar cells situated among
the root fibers of XII and along the ventral border of the
dorsal part of the ventral column. A characteristic section in
this region will show several of these cells in this position.
 
 
The dorsal part forms the main group of the ventral column
(fig. 3) which extends farther caudad than the other cell
groups of the hypoglossal nucleus.
 
The more general relations of the XII nucleus in the human
brain stem have been given by Sabin ( ’01)’ and Weed (’14),
but without a. consideration of its various cell groups.
 
There have been a number of studies on lower animals,
based on normal and experimental material, attempting to
determine specific centers within the hypoglossal cell column
for the various tongue muscles (Koska and J agita, ’03;
Stuurman, ’16; and Berkelbach van der Sprenkel, ’24).
Human clinical‘materia1 has also been used in trying to work
out a localization pattern within the XII nucleus (Parhon
and Papinian, ’04; Goldstein and Minea, ’09; and others).
The conclusions are not in complete agreement and it is
difiicult to evaluate the findings.
 
Contrary to the statements in at number of the current text
books of anatomy, many investigators believe that the nucleus
for the fibers innervating the geniohyoid muscle is located in
the medulla oblongata within the hypoglossal nucleus. A
phylogenetic study of the nuclear groups of the XII nerve is
in progress at the University of Michigan. Only a preliminary report of this work has now been published (Barnard,
’37). Since the material under consideration throws no additional light on the question, the localization problem will not
be discussed here.
 
Along the ventral border of the hypoglossal nucleus there
is a group of small cells which are not clearly delimited from
the surrounding reticular gray substance. This nucleus is
poorly developed in the stages studied but it probably corresponds to the cell group known as Roller’s nucleus (Ramon y
Cajal, ’09). In this material no evidence was observed that
these cells contribute fibers to the roots of XII.
 
There is a small group of closely packed small cells located
medial to the ventral column of the hypoglossal nucleus at
about the level of the junction of the caudal and middle thirds
of the XII nucleus. This group of cells is not always at
 
 
Fig.4 A composite diagrammatic representation of the course of the XII
x_\erve as it may be followed in the cross sections of a human embryo (no. 22).
From activated protargol preparations.
 
 
exactly the same level as the corresponding group on the opposite side. An additional group of such cells may be in
much the same position, but a little farther rostralward. This
may correspond to the nucleus described by Schwentker (’27)
in the adult human brain. It was not possible to trace the
processes from these cells.
 
The nucleus intercalatus (of Staderini, 1895) is somewhat
cone—shaped, with its large end directed forward (figs. 1
and 2). It lies parallel to, and in close relation with, the XII
cell column, the two forming a slight bulge in the floor of the
fourth ventricle known as the trigonum hypoglossi. The
caudal end tapers off and extends as a narrow strand of small
cells along the dorsal border of the XII nucleus, but thickens again toward its caudal pole. Sagittal series reveal that
this is a continuous strand of cells. The nucleus intercalatus
is thought by most observers to contribute no fibers to the
 
roots of XII.
 
COURSE OF THE NERVE
 
Root fibers collect in small bundles along the ventral border
of the XII nucleus (figs. 4, 6, and 7). These bundles course
ventrad and slightly late1'ad, and enter the hilus of the in
ferior olive. Instead of coursing directly through the olive,
they turn slightly mediad, cutting through the ventral olivary
wall, and leave the medulla oblongata lateral to the developing
pyramid. The fibers arising from the caudal end of the hypoglossal cell column cross the medullary field in a more nearly
straight line.
 
After leaving the medulla oblongata, the root fibers of XII
are easily followed. They gradually converge into larger
bundles, and passing dorsally of the vertebral artery, course
ventrolaterad. These bundles unite farther into two or three
bundles, usually two, and make their exit from the cranial
cavity through the hypoglossal canal. According to Streeter
(’04) the hypoglossal nerve has originated through the
fusion of three or four segmental spinal nerves which have
been enclosed within the cranium. Bremer (’08) reported that it is not uncommon to find fibers continuing the line of
ventral roots between the XII and the VI cranial nerves.
 
The roots of XII fuse as they leave the cranial cavity and
pass toward the vagus nerve. The XII nerve may first come
in contact with the X nerve either in the region of the
ganglion nodosum or a little above that ganglion. As XII
courses around the nodose ganglion, it may lie either in close
contact with the ganglion or it may occupy a groove in the
ganglion, and thus be in a more intimate relationship with the
vagus nerve. XII then passes ventrad between the internal
jugular and the internal carotid, and in the region of the
posterior border of the developing hyoid bone it gives off
a branch which runs caudad to supply the thyrohyoideus
muscle. The nerve continues ventrad and slightly cephalad
forming an arch with its convex border below. It passes
medial to the stylohyoid muscle and the submaxillary gland,
and lateral to the lingual artery and the hyoglossus muscle.
In the root of the tongue branches of the nerve are given off
to the hyoglossus muscle. The XII nerve passes above the
geniohyoid muscle, which it supplies with branches, and turns
mediad in front of the hyoglossus muscle to enter the tongue.
The hypoglossal nerve passes through the genioglossus muscle
and into the body of the tongue, where it breaks up into its
terminal branches and innervates both the intrinsic and the
extrinsic muscles of the tongue.
 
The trunk of the hypoglossal nerve is made up chiefly of
 
medium and large-sized medullated nerve fibers. There are a.
 
few nonmedullated nerve fibers in the spaces between the
medullated fibers (in the cat, dog and rabbit, Koch, ’16, and
in the cat, Langworthy (’24 a). In adult. animals no unmye—
linated nerve fibers were observed within the roots of XII.
 
COMMUNICATING BRANCHES
 
The hypoglossal nerve receives, during its course a number
of communicating branches. One of these is a very delicate
filament which runs with XII as that nerve passestthrough the
hypoglossal foramen. Peripherally this filament becomes lost in the loose connective tissue in the region of the carotid
plexus. It was not possible to follow the course of these
fibers centrally to the foramen.
 
Soon after leaving the hypoglossal canal, the XII nerve receives a small filament from the first cervical nerve. This
filament appears to run centrad with XII. Its termination is
undetermined and its significance not understood. At the
point of origin of this filament from the first cervical nerve
there is a group of cells resembling a small ganglion.
 
The XII nerve is sometimes joined by a communicating
branch from the superior cervical ganglion or the sympathetic
trunk just before XII comes in contact with X.
 
The hypoglossal nerve receives a root from the anterior
ramus of the first cervical nerve which in turn has received a
branch from the anterior ramus of the second cervical nerve
(figs. 5, 6 and 7). This communicating branch from the first
and second cervical nerves joins XII just as that nerve arches
around the border of the ganglion nodosum. Here XII is in
intimate relationship with X and the ganglion nodosum. To
what degree there may be an exchange of fibers is difficult to
determine in this material.
 
The ramus deseendens leaves XII as the latter passes
forward from the ganglion nodosum. Berkelbach van der
Sprenkel (’24) considers that in the hedgehog, fibers from the
second cervical dorsal root ganglion ascend in the ramus deseendens hypoglossi and turn forward with XII. This appears to be the case in certain human ernrbyos. This relation
is more easily observed in younger embryos (figs. 5, 6, 8
and 9) than in older fetuses.
 
Streeter ( ’04) found in many human embryos that the connections of the hypoglossal nerve with the upper cervical
roots are coincident with, or precede the appearance of the
ramus deseendens (XII). In some cases however, the ramus
deseendens developed before receiving branches from the
cervical nerves. Streeter also pointd out that the early arrangement of the root fibers of XII and the upper cervical
nerves resembles the spokes of a wheel, being perpendicular to the neural tube. Thus, adjacent fibers are bound together
at the time their sheaths are formed. As would be expected,
a certain amount of variation is found in the arrangement of
the communicating branches of the upper cervical nerves
with XII and the ramus descendens. Streeter considered that
the character of ramus descendens is dependent on the nature
of the contributions from the cervical nerves. He pointed
 
 
Fig.5 A composite semischematic drawing showing the form of the ansa
hypoglossi in 9. young human embryo of about 7 weeks. Note the proximity of
the mouth and the heart in an embryo of this age. Human embryo no. H. 1360.
From pyridine silver preparations out in the sagittal plane.
 
out however, that fibers destined for the descending ramus
may be picked up either with the more caudal roots of the
XII nerve, which will result in little or no communication between the hypoglossal nerve and the first cervical nerve or
these fibers may be picked up with the first cervical nerve,
course with the XII nerve for a short distance, and then proceed to their destination.
 
 
Goldstein and Minea (’09) concluded that the descending
ramus of XII in man does not take its origin from the hypoglossal nucleus, but from the cervical cord. Stuurman (’16)
found no degeneration in the XII nucleus after the removal of
the ramus descendens in the mouse.
 
The descendens cervicalis is formed by branches from the
anterior rami of the second and third cervical nerves. The
ansa hypoglossi has already been formed in all of the embryos
 
 
 
m. geniogl.-"" '{_ I "
m. geniohy/I I
 
Fig. 6 A drawing similar to the preceding figure illustrating the coure of the
XII nerve in a human embryo of about 8 weeks. The hypoglosal nucleus is seen
as a prolongation of the cervical gray column into the medulla oblongata. Human
embryo no. H. 1194. From pyridine silver preparations cut in the sagittal plane.
 
studied. In the younger stages studied, this loop is very
hort. Thus it is easy to understand how cervical fibers may
ascend in the ramus descendens (fig. 5). It is in older stages
where the structures in the neck have enlarged and separated
farther, that the relations resembling those in the adult are
found.
 
After X.II crosses the lateral surface of the hyoglossus
muscle, it turns around the anterior border of that muscle
HUMAN EMBRYONIC HYPOGLOSSAL 33
 
and is joined by a small filament of fibers which accompanies
the lingual artery (fig. 4). These fibers can be traced back
along the lingual artery and into the carotid plexus.
 
In the tongue, the XII nerve receives a communicating
branch from the lingual nerve.
 
med. obl .~.__
‘\
\~
 
     
 
gang. nod N. X\\
 
m. sfylogl.
 
m. hyoql.\ \
tongues,‘
 
rn. qenioql.
 
  -sane ea
E --- -sp. cord
 
:4/duo
 
mend.’ / /” / / 1.
mqeniohy.’ // /// 11
m. mylohy. / /’
 
as hyold.’ //’
 
m. fhyreohyfx
c. thyr"
 
Fig.7 A composite diagrammatic drawing showing the origin, course, and
distribution of the hypoglossal nerve in a human embryo of about 10 weeks.
From activated protargol preparations cut in the sagittal plane. Human embryo
no. 21.
 
In the root of the tongue, the XII nerve occasionally communicates with its fellow on the opposite side. This was
observed in two human fetuses (no. 4 and 15). In each case
the communicating branch ran in front of the hyoid bone and
between the genioglossus and the geniohyoid muscles.
 
Andersch called this branch the transverse arch (Scarpa,
1794).
 
A SENSORY COMPONENT
 
Froriep (1882) found in certain hoofed animals persistent
dorsal roots and ganglia associated with the caudal rootlets
of the hypoglossal nerve. Similar hypoglossal ganglia have
been described in other forms and referred to as Froriep’s
ganglia. The presence of such ganglia in relation to the
 
Fig.8 A drawing of a sagittal section through the junction of the hypoglossal
nerve and ramus descendens (see fig. 6). This figure shows fibers from the
descending ramus turning forward with the hypoglossal nerve. Human embryo
no. H. 1194. Pyridine silver preparation (section 15-2-2). X 225.
 
hypoglossal nerve in man is considered extremely rare. In
many human embryos there is a small ganglionic swelling on
the trunk of the spinal accessory nerve a little above the
ganglion of the first cervical nerve. In none of the material
studied does this ganglion appear to have a direct connection
with the hypoglossal nerve. This ganglion is probably one
of the accessory root ganglia (Pearson, ’38).
 
 
It may be true that remnants of tlie dorsal root ganglia of
the segmental nerves which have become incorporated into
the hypoglassal nerve are included among the more caudal
accessory root ganglia. Their axons, instead of passing directly to join XII, may follow the accessory root fibers to
the Vagus nerve and possibly join XII as the latter hooks
 
Fig. 9 A photomicrograph of the section drawn in the preceding figure. Some
of the fibers shown in the drawing are out of focus in this picture. X 225.
 
around the ganglion nodosum. Langworthy (’24 b) concluded on the basis of the chromatolytic changes in experimental material that some of the sensory fibers in XII have
their cells of origin in the nodose ganglion of X.
 
It has been pointed out that in one of the human embryos
studied, there are fibers in the descendens hypoglossi which
turn forward with the XII nerve (figs. 8 and 9). This agrees
with Berkelbach van der Sprenkel (’24), who described in
 
 
the hedgehog sensory fibers in the XII nerve Whose cells of
origin are located in the ganglion of the second cervical nerve.
That author considered that some of the fibers which ascend
in the ramus descendens XII, innervate for muscle sense the
thyrohyoideus, the hyoglossus, and the styloglossus muscles.
 
Sherrington (1894) has described the XII nerve in an
amyelous fetus, whose central nervous system had been
destroyed by some pathological condition after the neural
crests had developed. In this specimen the XII nerve appeared to be formed largely by a branch from the second
cervical ganglion and a branch from the vagus nerve below
its ganglion. In the tongue the XII nerve gave off branches
to the tongue muscles.
 
Corbin, Lhamon and Petit (’37) have described in the
rhesus monkey a small number of degenerating fibers in the
distal portion of the hypoglossal nerve after the removal of
the second cervical dorsal root ganglion. These authors suggested that there is an extracranial contribution of sensory
fibers to the XII nerve from the second cervical dorsal root
ganglion. This contribution was regarded as probaby
proprioceptive in nature. It was further suggested, that the
relation of XII and the upper cervical nerves in the monkey
may be different from that in the eat, Where XII Was thought
to contain no fibers which originate in the upper cervical
dorsal root ganglia (Hinsey and Corbin, ’34). However, the
experiments of Langworthy (’24 b) on cats would indicate
that XII receives proprioceptive fibers not only from
Froriep’s ganglion, but also the second cervical dorsal root
ganglion and the ganglion of X. In these experiments, Langworthy found that the neuromuscular spindles disappeared
from the tongue muscles after cutting the XII nerve, and concluded that the hypoglossal nerve carries proprioceptive
fibers. The degeneration experiments of Yee, Harrison and
Corbin (’39) on the rabbit, revealed that a small contribution (1 to 5%) of sensory fibers from the dorsal root ganglion of the first cervical nerve joins the peripheral portion of the
XII cranial nerve.
 
In the work of Tarkhan (’36) on cats and dogs, it was
found that stimulation of the central stump of XII caused
an increase in arterial pressure and reflex movements of the
jaw and tongue. Barron ( ’36) however, found no evidence of
proprioceptive impulses in the XII nerve.
 
It is of interest to mention the work of Olmstead and Pinger
(’36), who found that the XII nerve, when sutured to the
lingual nerve, can initiate the regeneration of taste buds in
the papillae where they have disappeared as a result of
cutting the lingual nerves.
 
Muscle spindles have been observed in the tongue of man
and many other animals by a number of authors (Hinsey,
’34, and others) which would indicate a proprioceptive innervation. ,
 
More work will be necessary, however, to establish the
validity of a sensory component in XII. The evidence at
hand would suggest that proprioceptive fibers join the hypoglossal nerve, and that their cells of origin are probably
located in the dorsal root ganglia. of the upper cervical nerves
and possibly the nodose ganglion.
 
SUMMARY
 
The hypoglossal nerve has been shown to arise from a
column of cells which is seen as a prolongation of the anterior
gray column of the cervical spinal cord into the medulla
oblongata.
 
The hypoglossal cell column differentiates into a. dorsal and
a ventral column. The dorsal column in turn is divisible into
a medial and a lateral group. A third group may appear
later. The Ventral column becomes divided into a dorsal and
a ventral group. A group of small cells was observed which
may correspond to the group described by Schwentker (’27).
 
The course of the XII nerve and its relations in the
embryos studied are described. The XII nerve was found
to have communicating branches which connect it with the
first and second cervical nerves, the superior cervical sympathetic ganglion or the sympathetic trunk, the carotid plexus, and the lingual nerve. In a few cases the hypoglossal nerve
was observed to send a communicating branch to itsifellow on
the opposite side.
 
Fibers have been observed in the descendens hypoglossi
which turn forward with XII. This would indicate that upper
cervical spinal nerve fibers course with the hypoglossal nerve.
These fibers may be proprioceptive.
 
 
LITERATURE CITED
 
ARIiiNs KAPPERS, C. U., G. C. HUBER AND E. C. Cnosnr 1936 The comparative
anatomy of the nervous system of vertebrates including man. The
Macmillan Co., New York.
 
BARNARD, J. W. 1937 The mammalian hypoglossal nucleus. A preliminary
report. University‘ Hospital Bulletin, University of Michigan, vol. 3,
pp. 41-42.
 
BARRON, D. H. 1936 A note on the course of the proprioceptor fibers from
the tongue. Anat. Reo., vol. 66, pp. 11-15.
 
BERKELBACH VAN DER SPRENKEL, H. 1924 The hypoglossal nerve in an embryo
of Erinaceus europaeus. J. Comp. Neur., vol. 36, p. 219-270.
 
BODIAN, D. 1987 The staining of paraffin sections of nervous tissues with
activated protargol. The role of fixatives. Anat. Rec., vol. 69, pp.
153-162.
 
BREMER, J . L. 1908 Aberrant roots and branches of the abducent and hypoglossal nerves. J. Comp. Neur., vol. 18, pp. 619-639.
 
CORBIN, K. B., W. T. LHAMON AND D. W. Pnrrr 1937 Peripheral and central
connections of the upper cervical dorsal root ganglia in the rhesus
monkey. J. Comp. Neur., vol. 66, pp. 405-414.
 
FRORIEP, A. 1882 Uber ein Ganglion des Hypoglossus und Wirbelanlagen in der
Occipitalregion. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. Anat. Abt., S. 279-302.
 
Gonnsrsm, M., AND I. MXNEA 1909 Quelques localisations dans le noyau de
1’hypog1osse et du trijumeau chez l’homme. Folia neuro-biol., Bd. 3,
S. 135-151.
 
HINSEY, J. C. 1934 The innervation of skeletal muscle. Physiol. Reviews,
vol. 14, pp. 514—585.
 
HINSEY, J. 0., AND K. B. CoR.BIN 1934 Observations on the peripheral course
of the sensory fibers in the first four cervical nerves of the cat. J.
Comp. Neur., vol. 60, pp. 37-44.
 
KOCH, S. L. 1916 The structure of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, ninth, eleventh
and twelfth cranial nerves. J. Comp. Neur., vol. 26, pp. 541-552.
 
KOSAKA, K., AND K. J AGITA 1903 Experimentelle Untersuchungen fiber die
Ursprfinge dss Nervus hypoglossus und seines absteigenden Aste.
Jahrb. f. Psychiat. u. NeuroI., Bd. 24, S. 150-189.
 
 
LANGWORTEY, O. R. 1924 a A study of the innervation of the tongue musculature with particular reference to the proprioceptive mechanism. J.
Comp. Neur., vol. 36, pp. 273-297.
— 1924b Problems of tongue innervation: course of proprioceptive
nerve fibers, autonomic innervation of skeletal musculature. Johns
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[[Category:Historic Embryology]][[Category:Neural]][[Category:1930's]][[Category:Draft]]

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