Talk:Book - Outline of Comparative Embryology
Table of Contents
P4I?’l' ()NI<.' (lI*INI9'h’AL EWBRYOLOGY
« u wrric I lIIS’l‘0RI(.‘AL l)EViCI.0l’MI*)N’l‘ OF EMBRYOL()(i\ 1 ICVlCN’I‘S ()I*‘ IMI’()lt’I‘\N(‘F) IN Till‘) HlS’l‘()l{\ (W lCMBliY-
II THE GICRM (‘ELL (‘YCLIC *4 1 Cell Division in Gametogenesis l()
u IV[11IlLplur1(I(m P(II()(/ 10
I) Growth l’srw(l 10
1‘ Maturation I’4rLml 10
2. Nuclear Events in Gametogenesis 12
(L Reduction 12
b S1/napszs 15
J Fertilization 17
III EGG \Nl) CLEAVAGE ’l‘\ PES 20 I Classification of Egg Types 23
1lm'Lt/ml 24
7'1 loll ( film] .24
('n1trolomthnl 21
2 Classification of Cleavage Types 25
3 Classification on the Basis of Predelineation 26
(1 Eggs 1011/? [)(l(7‘I7lZIl(1I'lI'(’ (71111 (I!/( 26
I) Eqqs wzlh Imletnnnnatc ('luwm/4 27
IV HOLOBLASTH‘ ’l‘YI’ES ()F (‘I.l<I\V\(il<} 28 I RADIAL (‘LEAVA(‘xl<) .28
II DISYMMIu‘TRICAL ("Llu‘AV~\(lE 32
III BILA'l‘I<}R'\L (‘LEAVAGE 34
1 Amphioxus 34
2 Ascidians 37
3 Vertebrates 42
4 Nematodes 16
5 Rotifers 50
IV SPIRAL (i‘LIdAV \GIG 50
V MEROBLASTIC 'I‘\I’IL‘h‘ OF CLEAV \(}}<) 62 I SUPERFICIAL CLEAVIUIE 62
1 Cleavage at First Total but Later Superficial 65
2. Eggs with Purely Superficial Cleavage 67
CHAPTER mm II DISCOIDAL CLEAVAGE 68
1 Scorpions 70
2 Cephalopods 72
- .3 Vertebrates ' 76)
III IRREGULAR CLEAVAGE ()0
VI TYPES OF BLASTULAE 91 A COELOBLASTULA 91
B STERLOBLA§T'ULA 93
C MORULA 94
D PLACULA 94
E AMPHIBLASTUI A 95
F SUPERFICIAL BLASTUIA 95
G DIscoBLAs'rULA 90
VII ENDODERM FORMATION 98 I METHODS OF GASTRULATIOV 98
A EMBOLIC GASTRULATION 98
B EPIBOLIC GAS-TRULATION 101
C POLAR INGRLssxoN 102
1 Restncted Umpolar Ingressxon 102
2 Many-celled Umpolar Ingressxon 10.5
3 Multzpolar Ingressxon (Apolar Ingressxon) 105
D DELAMINATION 105
1 Coeloblastnc or Mxxed Delammatnon 10b
2 Morula Delammatxon 106
3 Syncytxa1Delammat1on 108
II THE DISCOGASTRULA 11()
A VERTFBRATES l1()
- 1 Selachums 114
b Teleosts 115
( Reptzles and Bards 116
B Scoxcvrom 119
C CEPHALOPODS 120
VIII MESODERM FORMATION 122 I ECTOMESODERM 122
II ENDOMESODERM 124
1 Teloblastnc Mesoderm Band Formation 125
2 Secondary or Denved Mesoderm Band Formatron 127
3 Enterocoele Formatxon 130
4 Coelome Formatnon by Sohd Ingrowth 131
5 Mesenchymatous Coelome Formatxon 1.3.3
III THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE COELOME 133
IX TYPES OF INVERTEBRATE LARVAE 136 I THE PORIFERA 136
The Amphxblastula 136
II THE COELENTERATA 141
1 The Planula 141 ( IIAPTER
III
IV
VI
VII VIII
2 The Actinula
3 Origin of Coelenterate Larvae
4 Actinozoan Development
5 Scyphozoan Larvae THE PLATYHELMINTHES
1 Muller's Larva
2 Trematode Larvae
3 Cestode Larvae THE NEMERTINFA
The Pilidmm
THE ANNELIDA AND M0LLUS(“I\
1 The Trochophore Larva
2 The Annelid Trochophore
.3 The Molluscan Trochophore THE (‘RUSTACEA
Nauplius Larva
THE INSEC’1‘A THE ECIIINODERMATA
1 The Bipinnaria
.2 The Dipleurula
3 Metamorphosis of Asterias EN TEROPN EUSTA
\' FORMATION OF THE MAMMALIAN EMBRYO
I MONOTREMES
II THE MARSUPIALS
III Endoderm Formation
HIGHER MAMMALS
1 General Discussion
2 Development up to the Blastocyst The Blastocyst The Amnion Embryonic Shield
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XI EGG AND EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
I
EGG MEMBRANES
A PRIMARY MEMBRAN1-.s Vztcllme M embrmu Zona Radzaia
B SECONDARY MEMBRANES The Chorzon
C TERTIARY MEMBRANES
II. EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
A INVERTEBRATES The Yolk Sac The Amnion
B VERTEBRATES Excmvr MAMMAIA The Yolk Sac The Amnion The Allantois
(JIAPTER man:
(‘ M AMMALS 241
The Yolk Sac 243
The Amnion 246
The Allantoxs 247
The Placenta 247
N on-deczdwzte Placenta 249
Deczduate Placenta 251
Table: Embryonic Membranes of Mammals 256
APPENDIX TO PART ONE 258
I CHART SUMMARIZING THE EMBRYOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF ANIMALS FOUND IN THE VARIOUS PHYLA 258
II. TABLE OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION INCLUDING EXAMPLES OF EMBRYOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE 260
PART TWO EMBRYOLOGICAI. PROBLEMS
I ORIGIN AND DEVEI.()PMEN’l‘ OF GERM CELLS 271 A VERTEBMTM 271 B INVERTEBRAT1-‘S 275
II GERM-LAYER THEORY III THE RECAPITULATION THEORY IV ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
OCCURRENCE or AHEYUAL Rmrnonucnox 207 Pomfera 2 )7 Coelmztorata 300 Plat yhr lnmwthos 304 Pol:/zoa 307 Armdula 310 Echmodermata 315 Pt! robmn chm 31 5 Tumcala 31 G V ertebrata .321
V PARTHENOGENESIS .‘‘22 I NORMAL PARTHENOGENESIS .22 A GENERAL DISCUSRIOV 322
a Termmology 323
b C1/tologzcal Relatzonshzps 325
c Parthcnogemszs and Sex 326
d Intersexes 327
e Geographwal Races 328
f Causes of Parthenogeneszs 329
B. OCCURRENCE or NORMAL PARTHENOGENESIS 330
a Rotzfera 330
b Nematoda 331
c Annehda 331
d Cmataoea 331 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
Lu M-TER PAGE 1 I Il.sLcl(l 333
f. Plants 338
II. ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS 339
VI. PAED()GENESIS AND NEOTENY 344 VII. POLYEMBRYONY 353 A, THE CAUSES OF POLS]uMBRYONY 354
B. Onsmwm) CAm~..s or POLYEMBRYONY 357
F lat worms 358
Bruozoa 358
Earthworm 359
Pm'a.smr ]1]]m(”nO[ll(7‘ll 360
Armadzllo 362
C. EXAMPLES OF DOUBTFUL P0I.Yr:\1BaYoNY 366
VIII. THE DIu"l‘I:}RMINA’l‘ION PROBLEM 368 A INl"R()DUCTI()N AND STATEMENT or‘ PROBLEVI 368
B. CLASSICAL THEORIES OF THE NATURE or DEVI'.I.OI’MENT 370
C. EVIDENCE BEARIM. ON DETER'VllNA'[‘ION 373
1. Morphological Evidence 373
2 Experimental Evidence 374
IX ECOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INVERTEBRATE LARVAL TYPES 383 GLOSSARY ()F EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS 388
A SOURCE VVORDS no Rooms FROM FOREl(..N LAN(.nA«.1~:.s 388
B. DF}F!NITI()N% or Tmms Usm) I’~I E~mnYo1.o(.y 392 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 406 INDEX .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 429
GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
SOURCE WORDS AND ROOTS FROM FOREIGN LANGUAGES
11, Gr., without
ab, L., away from
acro, fr. Gr. akros, highest tip, apex actin, fr. Gr. aktes, my
ad, L., to or toward, upon akros, Gr., tip
allos, Gr., other
alter, L., other
amnion, fr. Gr. amnos, lamb amphi, Gr., both
an, Gr., without
line, L., up
Anlage, Ger., fundament, beginning cell
mass
ante, L., before
enthropos, Gr.. man
apo, Gr., away
apsls, Gr., an arch
aqua, L., water
archos. fr. Gr. archaios, ancient arrenos, Gr., male
arthros, Gr., joint
askos, Gr., bag, wine skin aster, Gr., star
auris, L., ear
autos, Gr., self
basi, L., at the base of hi, L., two
bios, Gr., life
blsstos, Gr., germ brachium, L.. arm brschy, Gr., short
caecus, L., blind
caeno, fr. Gr. lcainos, common Cardin, Gr., heart
cauda, L., mil
centro, fr. Gr. Icentron, center cephslé, Gr., head
cercoid, fr. Gr. Icerkos, tail
chiasma, Gr., two crossed lines chondros, Gr., cartilage (grain of wheat) chords, L., a cord or string
chorion, Gr., foetus-membrane chroma, Gr., color
chyma, Gr., juice, fluid
clast, fr. Gr. Iclastos, broken
cloaca, L., sewer
coelo, fr. Gr. lcoelos, hollow
cope, fr. Gr. hope, an oar
corpus, L., body
cortex, L., bark
crescere, L., to increase
cyclos, Gr., circle
cyphon, fr. Gr. Icyphos, bent, crooked cyst, fr. Gr. kystts, bladder, sac
cytos, Gr., cell or hollow space
de, L., from, away, out of
deferre, L., to carry away
delphys, Gr., uterus
de novo, L. “from a new” or "anew,”
origin from no known source
dens, L., tooth
derma, Gr., skin
desxnos, Gr., fastening, ligament deuto, fr. Gr. deuteros, second, second-
ary
dexios, Gr., on the right hand
di, Gr., two
dia, Gr., between
diplos, Gr., double
ducere, L., to lead
dura, L., hard
echinos, Gr., hedgehog
ecto, ekt, Gr., the outer, outside efferre, L., to carry away from elasmos, Gr., plate, flat, metal plate
embole, Gr., 3. putting into enchyma, Gr., something poured in end, endo, Gr., within, inside enteros, Gr., inside
ep, epi, Gr., upon
epibole, Gr., a throwing upon erythros, Gr., red
eu, Gr., well, good
ex, L., out, outside
ferre, L., to carry fllum, L., thread foetus, L., offspring foramen, L., an opening
gamete, Gr., wife
gastér, Gr., stomach
gemma, L., a bud
genesis, Gr., birth
gerere, L., to bear
germinate, L., to sprout
-glea, Gr., gelatinous substance goné, Gr., offspring
gyné, Gr., woman
hémi, L., half
hépar, Gr., liver
heteros, Gr., different
hippies, Gr., pertaining to a horse holes, Gr., whole
homoios, Gr., like
homes, Gr., the same
hydra, Gr., water
hyp, hypo, Gr. or L., below hyper, Gr., over, above
inter, L., between
in toto, L., in entirety intra, L., within
isos, Gr., equal
karyon, Gr., nut
kata, Gr., down
Keimbahn, Ger., germ track kinesis, Gr., motion
labium, L., lip
lactima, L., tear
lacuna, L., space
laion, Gr., left
lamina, L., a thin sheath
larva, L., ghost, mask
latus, L., side
lecithin, fr. Gr., lekithos, yolk leios, Gr., smooth
leukos, Gr., white
lingua, L., tongue
lithos, Gr., a stone
logos, Gr., speech, reasoning lympha, L., clear water
makros, Gr., large mamma, L., breast marsupium, L., pouch maturus, L., ripe
medius, L., middle medulla, L., marrow megos, megalon, Gr., great meros, Gr., part
mes, meso, Gr., the middle
met, meta, Gr. and L., between or after
metos, Gr., a thread metron, Gr., 3. measure micros, Gr., small
mixis, Gr., mingling monos, Gr., one
morphé, Gr., form morula, L., little mulberry mys, Gr., muscle
myzon, Gr., sucker
natus, L., born
neos, Gr., new, youthful nephros, Gr., kidney neuron, Gr., nerve notes, Gr., back nucleus, L., kernel
odons, Gr., tooth
-oid, fr. Gr. eidos, form, like, in the form
of
oikos, Gr., 9. house onto, Gr., being ophis, Gr., a serpent optikos, Gr., eye orthos, Gr., straight ovum, L., egg
paedo, fr. Gr. pais, paidos, child palin, Gr., again
pallium, L., cloak or mantle para, Gr., beside, near
paren, L. from parere, to bear sinus, L., curve, hollow bag parthenos, Gr., virgin soma, Gr., body
Pen“. Gr., five sperms, Gr., germ, seed
peri, Gr. or L.. around splanchnon, Gr., one of the viscera petros, Gr., a stone sporos, Gr., 9. seed, a sowing
phag, fr. Gr. phagein, to eat stereos, Gr., solid
phasis, Gr., appearance stoma, Gr., mouth
pherein, Gr., to bear stratum, L., a layer
philein, Gr., to love atria, L., 9, fun-ow
-photos, Gr., bearing,-producing strobilos, Gr., something twisted, as :3. photos, Gr., light , pine cone
PhY11°fls GP-» 1081' sub., L., under
Pmdi°nv G’-v lime 03? super or supra, L., above
pinna, L., feather
plakous, Gr., flat cake (in placenta) planus, L., flat
plasma, Gr., formed, molded plastos, Gr., formed
plax, Gr., plate, fl-at
pleura, Gr., a rib, a side
pluteus, L., a shed
pueuma, Gr., breath
syn or sym, Gr., or L., together
teleos, Gr., whole
telos, Gr., end
tentare, L., to feel, to handle tetra, Gr., four
tetrados, Gr., four
théke, Gr., a case
pod‘, G,” foot thélé, Gr., a nipple poly’ G,-_, many thelys, Gr., female poros, Gr., a passage, pore tome, fr. Gr. tomé, a cutting post, L., behind, after tonos, Gr., tension pre, L., before totus, L., all, whole primordium, L., the beginning Trllger, Gen, carrier pro, Gr. or L., in front, toward tréma, Gr., opening proktos, Gr., anus tri, L., three
PT°t°S. GT». first ttochos, Gr., a wheel Pseudésv G1‘-v false trope, Gr., a turning Pt°’°“v Gr-r Wing trophé, Gr., nutrition 9"?” L‘! girl’ do“ tunic, L., tunic
Pym’ Gr" gate -typos, Gr., impressed form
quadrans, L., a fourth part _u1e, L" diminutive
' . l radius, L., spoke of wheel umbmcus’ L ’ mwe
re- (red-), L., back, again, against maul?’ L" hoof renes, L., kidney , ., one. . . this, Gr” nose in’, Ger., primitive . rostrum’ L” beak um, fr. Gr. aura, tail
vagina, L., sheath
111 L. littl “cc us’ ’ E e sac valent, fr. L. valerc, to be worth
sarx, Gr., flesh
saurus, Gr., a lizard V“: L-v 3 duct _ _
scleros, Gr., hard V9891“, Lu enlivened; VIEOTOUS: STOW- segmentum, L., from secure, to out ins
semi, L., half veiuxn. I--, a veil
septum, L., fence, wall venter, L., belly, stomach SOURCE WORDS AND ROOTS FROM FOREIGN LANGUAGES 391
vermis, L., worm zeugle, zeug, combining form from G12, vitellus, L., yolk of egg yoke, join vivus, L., alive zo6n, Gr., animal
volvere, L., to roll zygon, Gr., yoke, pair
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY
Names which are applied to a single structure only, as notovhord, mandible, ambulacra, etc., are not usually included in this glossary. Names of systematic groups are also omitted.
Acoelomate. Not possessing a coelome or body cavity.
Acrosome. The apical body at the tip of a spermatozoon. Also called “perfera- torium” from its supposed function of penetrating actively into the egg.
Actinotrocha. The larva of Phtrromls.
Actinula. The larva of many hydrozoa.
Agamocytogony. Asexual reproduction. M. Hartman’s term.
Agamogony. The same as agamocytogony.
Alecithal eggs. Eggs without yolk or with very little, and that uniformly distributed. Equivalent to isolecithal or homolecithal.
Alima. A larval stage of certain Crustacea.
Alternation of generations. The same as metagenesis.
Ametabola. A division of generalized insects which do not undergo metamorphosis; the Thysanura and Collembola.
Amitosis. Direct cell division; division without the formation of spireme or chromo- somes.
Amnion. A thin membrane enclosing the embryos of some invertebrates and of reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Amphiblastula. The free-swimming larval form in the sponges.
Arnphigony. Sexual reproduction, involving participation of two individuals.
Amphoterotoky. The condition in which parthenogenetic organisms of both sexes are produced in a single brood.
Analogy. Similarity of the parts due to function rather than structure.
Anaphase. The stages in mitosis during which the chromosomes pass from the meta- phase position at the equator of the spindle to the poles.
Animal pole. The protoplasmic part of the egg from which the polocytes or polar bodies are given off from which the nervous system and sense organs develop.
Arachnactis. The larva of the Cereanthidae.
Archenteron. The primitive gut of the gastrula which later becomes the primitive digestive tract.
Archeocytes. In sponges the wandering parenchyma cells, aggregates of which form gemmules. Also called sorites.
Architomy. Asexual reproduction in which no zone of division is indicated before the division actually begins. Contrasted with parntomy.
Arrhenotoky. The production parthenogenetically of eggs which are exclusively male producing.
Artificial parthenogenesis. The initiation of development in an egg without ferti- lization.
392 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 393
Ascidiozooid. In Pyrosoma buds produced from a stolen which forms on the rudi- mentary embryo.
Asexual reproduction. Reproduction without the union of germ cells, and conse- quently without their production, not even reducing divisions occurring in animals which propagate in this manner.
Aster. The star-like radiations which surround the central body during mitosis.
Augmentation. Reproduction by growth above the normal.
Auricularia. The larva of the Holothuroidea.
Atrochal larvae. In annelids ciliated larvae with an apical tuft of long cilia but with no prototroch are spoken of as atrochal.
Axis of cell. A line passing through the nucleus and centrosome of a cell.
Axis of embryo (embryonic axis). The anterior-posterior axis of the embryo, or the
line drawn through the uncleaved egg in the position of the future anterior- posterior direction.
Bilateral cleavage. A type of cleavage in which the egg substances are distributed symmetrically with respect to the median plane.
Biparental. Derived from two parents.
Bipinnaria. The larva of the starfishes, so called from the symmetrical arrangement of its arms.
Bisexual. Herrnaphroditie. Having organs of both sexes in one individual.
Blastea. The hypothetical ancestral form, corresponding to the blastula in the simplicity of its structure, which Haeckel made use of in his “Blastea-Gastrea” theory.
Blastocoele. The segmentation cavity or the cavity of the blastula.
Blastocone. Cells of the external row about the blastodisc of a cephalopod, the lower ends of which fade into the yolk.
Blastocyst. The hollow sphere formed in mammals by the cleavage of the egg and the migration of the blastomeres; the blastodermic vesicle.
Blastoderm. The layer of formative cells developed about the yolk mass in embryos from meroblastic eggs, particularly vertebrates; it is of only one cell in thickness.
Blastodisc. In eggs with discoidal cleavage the protoplasmic area during cleavage takes the form of a blastodisc.
Blastomere. The cell produced by cleavage of the egg.
Blastopore. The communication between the gastrular cavity and the outside.
Blastotomy. The separation of cleavage cells or portions of them in the early stages of development. '
Blastula. The end stages of cleavage. In its simplest condition a hollow sphere of cells.
Brachiolaria. An asteroid larva in a stage of development following the bipinnaria; it has three anterior arms containing diverticula of the anterior coelome.
Bud. An undeveloped branch, usually lateral, of an organism.
Budding. Reproduction in which a small secondary part is produced from the parent organism and gradually grows to become independent.
Calytopsis. The larval form of Euphausiodocea; a zoaea.
Campodeiform larva. An insect larva of generalized form resembling the thysanuran genus Campodea. Also called thysanuriform. Has long, flattened body, hard plates, long legs and antennae, caudal cerci, large mandibulate mouth parts. 394 GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
Cell lineage. The history of the cell divisions from the early cleavages up to the time when the definite fundaments of the organs are laid down.
Cenogenesis (caenogenesis). The developmental processes in an individual which reproduce no old or ancestral characters, but only new and adaptive ones. Opposed to palingemesis.
Centtodesmus. A connection between the centrioles after their division from which the central spindle at least in some cases is said to arise.
Centrolecithal eggs. Eggs in which the yolk, usually of rather large amount, is found in the central region.
Centrosome. The large central bodies formed at the poles of the spindle, consisting
of the centriole surrounded by the aster; the center of the divisional activity of the cell.
Cercaria. The tailed larva of the liver-fluke.
Chondriosome. A cytoplasmic body of the character of mitochondria, chondrio- chonts, etc.
Chorion. The second covering of an egg cell produced by the follicle cells. Also used loosely in other senses. In chick embryo it is equivalent to the outer or false amnion, and in mammalian embryos it is identified as trophoblastic in origin.
Chromatin. That substance in the nucleus which is rendered conspicuous by basic stains and which is the chief constituent of chromosomes.
Chromatin diminution. The elimination, usually in early cleavage, of a portion of the chromatin in the formation of the primordial germ cells.
Chromosomes. Bodies, commonly rod-shaped, seen to best advantage during the metaphase of a dividing cell. The mechanism by which their division is accom- plished is the physical basis of inheritance.
Chrysallogenesis. Production of ripe sex products in the pupal stage of Chironomus. A special form of paedogenesis.
Cleavage. The cell divisions by which the egg is converted into a. multicellular organ- ism, the blastula.
Coelome. The true body cavity lined with mesoderm and lying between the digestive tract and the body wall.
Coenogenesis. See Cenogenesis.
Concrescence. (1) The fusion or union of parts of a growing embryo which were already separate. The usual example is the coming together of the lateral halves of the blastoderm in the neighborhood of the blastopore. (2) Also the fusion of masses of sponge cells and their growth into an individual from which a new colony is formed.
Copepodid. A temporary hatched larval stage following the nauplius and meta- nauplius stages of certain parasitic copepods.
Cydippid. The larval form of higher groups of Ctenophora; named from the most primitive type of ctenophore, the Cydippidea.
Cyphonautes. The larval form of the ectoproct bryozoa.
Cypris. The larval form of certain decapods, named from the genus Cypris, an ostracod.
Cysticercoid. The bladder-worm stage of those tapeworms whose intermediate host is an invertebrate.
Cystlcercus. A bladder-worm larva of the tapeworms living in solid organs, as
muscles, liver, brain, etc., of vertebrate hosts. Cyte. A germ cell in the stages in the production of a gamete during which maturation DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 395
and especially chromosome reduction are accomplished. Oocyte and spermatocyte of the female and male, respectively. Cythazoid. One of the larval forms of Salpa. Cytogamy. Conjugation. Cytogeny. Sexual reproduction by germ cells. Cytology. The science which devotes itself to the study of cells as individuals. Cytoplasm. The protoplasm of the cell not including the nucleus.
Dediflerentiation. The return of cells from a condition of specialization to one corre- sponding to that of their embryonic condition.
Delamination. The formation of a new layer of cells parallel to the old by the division and migration and rearrangement of cells of the primary germ layers.
Desor’s larva. A type of larva of certain nemerteans which is really a modified pilidium.
Deuterostomia. A group of phyla which includes all forms in which ectomesoderm is lacking, namely the Echinodermata, Enteropneusta, and Chordata. Contrasted with Prostomia.
Deutoplasm. The food material or yolk within the cytoplasm of an egg.
Dexiotropic. Right handed, or in a clockwise direction.
Differentiation. Process by which originally a simple type of organization becomes structurally or functionally specialized.
Dioeceous. Having the organs of the two sexes in two individuals.
Dipleurula. The hypothetical larval ancestral form of the echinoderms.
Diploblastic. Of two germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm only.
Diploid. Having the unreduced number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells, the gonia, and the fertilized egg.
Discoidal. Having the type of cleavage found in extreme meroblastic eggs in which the cytoplasmic area is limited to a small disc on the yolk surface.
Disogeny. “Sexual maturity of one and the same individual in two different con- ditions, between which a metamorphosis with retrogression of the sex products occurs” (Chun).
Disymmetrical. Having the type of cleavage found in ctenophores in which two centers of symmetry are developed.
Echinopluteus. The pluteus larva of the echinoids.
Ectoderm (epiblast). The outer germ layer or the formative tissue composing it. Also the derivatives in later development of this layer.
Ectomeres. The micromeres in eggs with spirally cleaving eggs which produce ectodermic structures.
Ectomesoderm. Mesoderm derived from the primary ectoderm.
Ectoplasm. (1) The protoplasmic layer just within the cell wall. (2) The clear proto- plasm of the ascidian egg which is derived from the germinal vesicle and collects at the upper pole of the eg, the source of the material of the gray crescent.
Embolic gastrulntion. Gastrulation by invagination.
Embryo. The undeveloped organism during the period in which it is nourished only from stored food. Strictly speaking this term is applied to the young organism only while still enclosed in the egg membranes.
Embryonic axis. See Axis of embryo.
Embryonic knob. In the mammalian embryo in the cases of entypy of the germ, the thickened trophoblastic cell mass over the embryonic shield which by its enlarge- 396 GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
Inent brings about the so—called inversion of germ layers ; the "Triiger,” also tropho- blastic knob.
Embryonic shield. A thickening, more or less shield-like, in the walls of the blaste- derm, which will give rise to the body proper.
Endoderm (entoderm, hypoblast). The inner germ layer or the formative tissue composing it. Also the derivatives in later development of this layer.
Endoderm mother cells. Cells in the one-layered mammalian blastoeyst which by their inward migration and proliferation produce the primary endoderm.
Endomeres. The large macromeres of spirally cleaving eggs from which the endo- derm will arise.
Endomesodenn. Mesoderm derived from primary endoderm.
Enterocoele. A portion of the coelomic cavity which arises by outgrowth from the enteric cavity.
Entoderm. See Endoderm.
Ephippium. The shell in which the winter eggs of Cladocera are often contained.
Ephyra. The free-swimming larval form of the Scyphozoa.
Epiblast. See Ectoderm.
Epiboly. The process of overgrowth by which gastrulation is accomplished where the endomeres are very large and the micromeres very small.
Epigenesis. The conception that the developing germ cell is structurally homogeneous and undifierentiated, and that its subsequent development is due to the interaction of the protoplasrn and the environment. Opposed to preforrnation.
Erichthoidina. A stage in the development of the larva of stomatopod Crustacea.
Erichthus. A stage in the development of stomatopod crustacean larva.
Eruciform larva. Insect larva of caterpillar or maggot type. Cylindrical, fleshy body, thin integument, reduced mouth parts, antennae, legs, and caudal cerci. Inactive.
Evagination. The unequal growth outward of a. surface layer, one of the processes by which the differentiation of organs is produced.
Facultative or Optional. Said of parthenogenesis when the eggs possess the power of developing without the intervention of sperm, but more usually are fertilized.
Fertilization. Broadly considered, the union of the gametes of two sexes. Strictly speaking it has two phases, initiation of development and the union of the egg and sperm pronuclei.
Fetus. See Foetus.
Foetus (fetus). The advanced embryo of the mammal.
Formative area. The portion of a blastoderm or blastocyst which gives rise to the body proper of the embryo.
Fragmentation. The breaking into parts which may undergo further growth. Occurs in sponges.
Frustulation. Constriction of small bud-like branches from a hydroid after which it settles down as a frustulum which grows into a new hydranth.
Gaxnete. The germ cell when ready for fertilization without reference to sex.
Gametocytogony. Sexual reproduction. M. Hartman’s term.
Gametogenesi. The process of the development of the mature gamete from a pri- mordial germ cell.
Gamogony. Sexual reproduction. Gastrea. The hypothetical ancestral form which Haeckel conceived to have the
characters of a typical gastrula. C’f. blastea. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 397
Gastroblast. Nutritive individual of the tunicate colony.
Gastrula. The two-layered stage following the blastula of the embryo.
Gastrular cavity. The gastrocoele, from which the future enterie cavity is to be developed.
Gemmiparous. Reproducing by means of gemmules.
Gemmule. The reproductive mass of cells asexually derived in the sponges.
Germ balls. Groups of cells in the larval liver-fluke which give rise to the new rediae. By some regarded as parthenogenetic ova, by others as groups of cells asexually budded off.
Germ cell determinants. Cytoplasmic inclusions which are unequally distributed in cleavage but pass into the daughter cells of the germ line.
Germinal epithelium. That portion of the coelomie epithelium which covers the genital ridge and the developing gonads.
Germ layer. A primary formative layer of cells which by subsequent processes of development produces tissues and organs of the embryo.
Germ plasm. The hereditary material, the physical basis of inheritance, specifically localived in the chromatin.
Germ ring. The formative edge of the advancing blastodisc in eggs cleaving dis- coidally. The material of the embryonic region proper comes largely from this ring.
Germ track. Equivalent to the German Keimbahn. Those cells which are distinguished in the early cleavage stages, and from then on, from whose lineage will come the primordial germ cells.
Glochidium. Larva stage of bivalve molluscs; it commonly lives parasitically in the gills of fishes during part of its life cycle.
Gonangium. An individual without tentacles in a typical hydroid which buds off the medusae asexually.
Gonia. The cells resulting from the division of the primordial germ cells previous to the end of the growth period, sperrnatogonia for the male and oogonia for the female.
Gonocoele. That portion of the coelome in which the gonads are developed. It is derived from the ventral part of the myococlc.
Haploid. Having the reduced number of chromosomes as found in the matured gametes.
I-Iermaphrodite. An individual having organs of both sexes.
Hermaphroditic. The same as monoeceous.
I-Ieterochrony. Disturbances in the synchrony of development, or in the sequence of the events of ontogeny.
I-Ieterogarny. Production of gametes of different kinds. Opposed to isogamy.
I-Ieterogony. Alternation of generations in which hermnphroditic and bisexual generations are involved.
Heterometabola. Those groups of insects which have incomplete or direct meta- morphosis. Included are Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Platyptera, Plecoptera, Ephe- merida, Odonata, Thysanoptera, and Hemiptera.
I-Ieterotypic. Having the first meiotic or reduction division as distinguished from the second or homotypic.
I-Iibemacula. The winter buds of the Bryozoa. Holoblastic. Having the type of egg structure in which cleavage divides the entire
egg. Holometabola. The more specialized insects in which metamorphosis is complete or 398 GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
indirect. Includes Coleoptera, Strepsiptera, Neuroptera, Meccptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera, and Hymenoptera.
Homeotypic. Having the second meiotic or maturation division in which the behavior of the chromosomes is not greatly different from that of somatic mitosis as con- trasted with the case in the heterotypic division.
Homolecithal eggs. Equivalent to isolceithal and alecithal eggs; eggs in which the meager amount of yolk present is uniformly distributed.
Homology. The fundamental structural similarity between organs or organisms based upon a common embryologieal origin.
Hydra-tuba. See Scyphistoma.
Hydrocoele. That portion of the coelomic system of an cchinoderm from which the chief parts of the water vascular system of the adults arise.
Hypoblast. See Endoderm.
Implantation. The process by which the mammalian blastocyst becomes attached to the uterine wall.
Instar. A term used to designate an insect at any particular stage between molts, as: first instar, the insect at time of hatching; second instar, the insect after the first molt.
Interkinesis. The “resting” period intervening between two successive mitoses. The term is now commonly applied to all vegetative nuclei.
Invagination. The unfolding process by which, for example in gastrulation, the primary endoderm is withdrawn into the blastula cavity and becomes enclosed by the primary ectodcrm.
Inversion of germ layers. The formation in mammalian embryos due largely to the entypy of the germ of a false amniotic cavity lined with ectoderm and covered by mesoderm. No inversion in a true sense occurs, but a misleading appearance is responsible for the term.
Involution. Technically the rolling in or turning over of cells as over the blastodermal rim into the segmentation cavity. Commonly secondary to epiboly.
Isolecithal. Equivalent to aleeithal or homolecithal, indicating in holoblastic eggs the uniform distribution of the yolk granules.
Karyokinesis. Cell division of the indirect type involving primary nuclear activity and the formation of spindle, spiremes, chromosomes, etc. The same as mitosis.
Laceration. Fragmentation due to external unfavorable conditions. Subsequent re- generation normally follows.
Laeotropic. Left handed, or a cleavage plane of the spiral type turned counter- clockwise.
Lamella. A thin plate of tissue often connecting adjacent structures.
Lamina. A thin plate, especially of bone or other hard tissue.
Larval stage. An immature but usually active stage in the development of an organ- ism. Since it leads an independent existence 9. larva often possesses special tempor- ary adaptive characters which may not be of later significance.
Lecithin. One of the lipoid substances commonly found in the egg yolk.
Macromere. One of the larger blastomcres in eggs with unequal cleavage. Also written megamere. Opposed to micromere. Maturation. The process by which the germ cells or gametes are prepared for fertiliza- DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 399
tion. During maturation the reduction of the chromosome number to one-half usually takes place.
Megalecithal egg. An egg of the extreme meroblastic type in which there is a large amount of yolk.
Megalops. The larval stage which follows the zones. in most crabs. Megamere. See Macromere.
Meroblastic. Having the type of egg structure in which cleavage is only partial owing to the accumulation of yolk in the egg.
Mesenchyme. That part of the mesoderm which is not developed as a surface cover- ing, the mesothelium, or derived from it. Gives rise to connective tissue, blood, bone, etc.
Mesoblast. See Mesoderm.
Mesoderm (mesoblast). The middle germ layer or the formative tissue composing it. Also the derivatives in later development of this layer.
Mesoglea. A non-cellular layer of gelatinous consistency between the ectoderm and endoderm of sponges and coelenterates.
Mesomeres. A blastomere of size intermediate between macromeres and micromeres.
Mesoplasm. .One of the organ~forming substances, for example in Cynthia, where it is formed just below the equator from crescentic material.
Mesothelium. The mesoderm lining the primitive coelome; the epithelium of meso- dermal origin.
Metagenesis. Alternation of a sexual and an asexual generation.
Metamerism. The state of being made up of metameres or similar segments (somites) arranged serially.
Metamorphosis. The changes accompanying the transformation of a larva into an adult.
Metanauplius. The larval stage of crustaceans which commonly follows the nauplius, having usually seven pair of appendages.
Metaphnse. The middle stage of mitosis during which the chromosomes are arranged about the center of the spindle and are ready for separation.
Metaplasm. Inclusions within the cytoplasm such as yolk, pigment, starch, etc., which are the products of cytoplasmic activity.
Metazoaea. The larva of the decapod crustacea which intervenes between the zoaea and the mysis stages. It shows the first rudiments of the abdominal appendages.
Microlecithal eggs. Eggs containing only a small amount of yolk.
Micromeres. The smaller blastomeres of an egg with unequal cleavage.
Micropyle. The minute opening through the membranes of many eggs through which the sperm enters.
Miracidium. The earliest larval form of a liver-fluke.
Mitosis. Indirect cell division, karyokinesis; opposed to amitosis. It involves the formation of chromatin spiremes which split longitudinally, their conversion into chromosomes, and their separation by means of the spindle apparatus.
Mitraria. An aberrant annelid larva of the troehophore type.
Monoeceous. Having the organs of the two sexes in one individual.
Morula. A type of blastula characterized by the absence of a segmentation cavity. It differs from the stereoblastula in that in it the inner cells do not reach the surface. Found chiefly in coelenterates.
Mfiller’s larva. The larva of many polyclads, having an oval body and eight ciliated processes. 400 GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
Mysis. The larval stage of certain deeapod crustaceans corresponding to the genus Music in the possession of exopods upon the walking legs.
N auplius. Primary type of crustacean larva.
Neoteny. The retention of embryonic characters throughout life.
Nephrocoele, lflephrostome. The derivation of the primitive coelome and its cavity from which the nephridia are developed.
Nucleolus. The conspicuous, rather large, round body found during the resting stage of most. nuclei, having various functions, but primarily concerned with cell metab- olism.
Nucleus. The principal organ of a cell, serving to regulate growth, metabolism and reproduction.
Obligatory. Said of parthenogenesis when it occurs regularly in the life cycle of an organism.
Oecium. An individual among the Byrozoa in which the development of the young embryo takes place, and which is specialized for the purpose. Also called ovivcll.
Ontogeny. The entire life cycle of an individual organism, especially the develop- mental portion of it.
Olicyte. See Cyte.
Oligenesis. The gametogenesis in the female line.
Oogonia. See Gonia.
Otisome. The cytoplasmic body developed in the mature ovum of certain forms which, passing into the stem cell, serves as a germ-cell determinant.
Otitid. Mature egg.
Oozooid. In Salpa the first zooid produced from the egg; from its stolon is bud(l(‘d off a long series of other zooids that remain in connection with it for a consider- able time.
Ophiopluteus. The pluteus larva of the Ophiuroidea.
Optional parthenogenesis. The same as facultativc parthenogenesis.
Organ-forming substances. Difl'erentia.ted materials localized in the eggs of do- terminative type whose fate as shown by the study of cell lineage is in the forma- tion of definite organs of the embryo.
Organogenesis. The origin and development of the organs and organ systems in the embryo.
Organogeny. See Organogencsis.
Ovicel. The same as occium.
Oviparous. Egg laying.
Ovoviviparous. Retaining the eggs within the oviduct until hatching. The young, however, are not nourished from the body of the mother nor attached to the oviduct.
Ovum. The female gamete ready for fertilization.
Paedogenesis. The production of gametes during embryonic or larval life.
Palingenesis. The reproduction unchanged of old or ancestral characters. Palin- genetic characters are those having to do with old or phylogenetic structures. Opposed to cenogenesis.
Paranucleus. The nucleus of the trophamnion developed in the egg of parasitic Hymenoptcra, derived from the nuclei of the polar bodies.
Pnratomy. Asexual reproduction in which a special zone of division is prepared in DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 401
advance of the actual division. More or less regeneration of the new organs pre- cedes fission. Contrasted with architomy.
Parenchyma. Soft cellular tissue, relatively undifferentiated, found in the lower invertebrates.
Parenchymella. Equivalent to amphiblastula, the swimming larva of the sponge.
Parthenogenesis. Development of eggs without fertilization.
Partial cleavage. Incomplete cleavage of extreme telolecithal or meroblastic eggs.
Pentacrinoid. A larva of the crinoids such as Antedon. So called from its resemblance to the genus Pentacrinus.
Periblast. The cytoplasmic layer with nuclei which surrounds the formative cells of a blastodisc. It aids in digesting yolk and the nuclei often make their way into the yolk.
Perivitelline. About the ovum, as the perivitelline fluid which fills in the space of the same name between the surface of the frog’s egg and its jelly.
Phorozooid. A zooid of the free-swimming tunicates which although of the sexual generation does not mature sexually.
Phototropism. The response of an organism either by growth or locomotion to light rays. Phototaxis.
Phyllosoma. The larva of certain decapod crustaceans, as Palinurus.
Phylogeny. Racial history of a group of organisms.
Pilidium. The chief type of larva of the heteronemerteans.
Placenta. In higher mammals the embryonic connection between the mother and the young. Furnishes nourishment to the foetus.
Placentation. The formation of a placenta and its attachment to the walls of the
uterus. Plncula. A type of blastula in which the animal and vegetative halves are somewhat
compressed toward each other.
Planula. The hollow single-layered blastula which is the larval form of many coel- enterates.
Pluteus. The free-swimming larva of sea-urchins and ophiuroids.
Polar bodies. See Polocytes.
Polar disc. An accumulation of cytoplasmic inclusions at the posterior end of certain arthropod eggs. These inclusions make up the pole plasm which functions as germ-cell determinants.
Polar furrow. The interrupted and bent cross plane at the poles of eggs with spiral cleavage in the 4-cell stage; due to the fact that only two blastomeres meet at either pole instead of all four as in a similar stage of a radially cleaving egg.
Pole plasm. See Polar disc.
Polocytes (polar bodies). Two very small cells segmented off from the ovum during naturation. The morphological equivalent to oocytes but functionless.
Polyembryony. In zoology the development of two or more embryos from one egg. In plants the development of two or more embryos within one embryo sac, whether or not from one zygote.
Polygerm. The masses of embryonic nuclei and surrounding cytoplasm which follow the stage of the “parasitic body” in polyembryonic Hymenoptera and which eventually give rise to the definitive embryos.
Polymorphism. The capacity of an organism to exist in several forms.
Preformation. Opposed to epigenesis. The doctrine that the germ cell contains a young organism in nfiniature.
Primary ectoderm. The outer germ layer of the gastrula stage. 402 GLOSSARY OF EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
Primary endoderm. The inner germ layer of the gastrula stage.
Primordial germ cells. The cells set apart during the early development of the embryo from which the definitive germ cells of the future organism are to be derived.
Proctodaeum..The posterior portion of the developing alimentary tract which is invaginated from the outer body wall and hence is lined with ectoderm.
Progenesis. Retention by somatic structures of condition reached by them at the time of sexual maturity in neotenous animals.
Promorphology. The study of the early organization of the egg, particularly with reference to the significance of this organization in the production of lat.er-appear- ing organs.
Pronucleus. One of the two gumetic nuclei within the eg after sperm entrance but before cleavage.
Prophase. The preparatory stages of mitosis during which the formation occurs of spindle, spireme, and chromosomes.
Prospective potency. The total sum of developmental possibilities of which an organ is capable. Driesch’s term.
Prospective significance. The actual destiny of a cell or organ in the development processes, regardless of the potentialities. Driesch‘s term.
Prostomia. A group of phyla. in which ectomesoderm is developed at sure stage, namely coelenterates, flatworms, rotifers, annelids, mollusos, Molluscoidea.
Protoplasm. The active living substance of the cell, consisting ll nueleoplasm and cytoplasm.
Protozoaea. The larva of higher crustaceans which intervenes between the nauplius and the zoaea.
Pseudozoaea. A larval stage in the development of the Stomatopoda.
Pups. The intermediate quiescent form of metabolic insects following the active
larval period.
Quadrant. A fourth part of an embryo with spiral cleavage; all of the tmhryo vxhich is derived from one of the blastomeres of the four-cell stage.
Radial. Cleavage in which the plane of division may pass through the tuo poles of the egg in any radius.
Ra.t.hke’s yolk pyramids. In crustacean eggs having superficial cleavage the inner ends of the blastomeres contain chiefly yolk and fuse in the center of the (ml.ryo. These inner ends are spoken of as Rathke’s yolk pymrrids.
Rauber’s layer. The tln'n layer of trophoblast over the surface of the eetcderm of the embryonic region.
Recapitulation. Repetition in development of an individual organiem of its phylo- genetic history.
Redia (named after F. Redi). The second larval form of a liver-fluke.
Reduction. The decrease of the chromosome number to the haploid from the diploid in the two maturation mitoses.
Regeneration. The renewal or replacing of lost parts by an organism.
Regulation. The adjustment and readaptation of an organism to changes and acci- dental modifications of its surroundings or structure.
Sachs law (Sachs-Hertwig laws of cleavage). ( 1) The nucleus of a blastomere tends to be in the center of the protoplasmic mass. (2) The axis of the mitotic spindle tends to be in the longest axis of the protoplasmic mass. DEFIN ITIUN S OF TERM S USED IN EM BRYOLOG Y 403
Scyphistoma (Hydra-tuba). The hydroid generation of the scypho-medusa which subsequently elongates and constricts to form ephyra.
Scyphula. A scyphistoma.
Segmentation. Cleavage of the egg by cell division.
Segmentation cavity. The blastocoelc or the cavity of the blastula.
Sexual reproduction. Reproduction involving the union of germ cells, gametes, of two individuals, and thus implying the steps necessary for gamctogenesis.
Somatic. Relating to the body or some. of organisms, especially as contrasted with the germ plasm.
Somatic layers. See Somatopleure.
Somatopleure. The ectoderrn and the outer or parietal layer of mesoderm, the body wall. Contrastcd with splanclmopleure.
"Sorite.” Same as archeocyte.
Spawn. The egg masses of many aquatic animals as fishes, shell fish, etc., in which many small eggs are contained.
Spermatid. Matured male germ cell which has not undergone metamorphosis into a spermatozoon.
Spermatocyte. See Cyte.
Spermatogenesis. The gamctogcnesis in the male line.
Spermatogonia. See Gonia.
Spermatozoon. The male gamete ready for fertilization.
Spindle. The achromatic structure of fibers formed during mitosis upon which the chromosomes arrange themselves.
Spiral cleavage. That type of cleavage in which the direction of the spindle axis is shifted obliquely from the vertical direction with regard to the egg axis. In an eight-cell stage the upper quartette of cells usually appears turned in a right- handcd spiral to the lower.
Splanchnic layers. See Splanchnopleure.
Splanchnopleure. The visceral layer of the mesodcrm and the endoderm taken to- gether. Contrastcd with the somatoplcure.
Sporocyst. In trematodes the sac-like larval form from whose interior cells are buddcd off to form the rediae.
Stadia. The intervals between molts or ecdyscs in the development of an insect.
Statoblasts. Internal masses of cells which are morphologically huds from which new individuals develop. Occur as gemmules in sponges, germ balls in trematodes, etc.
Stem cell. The cell from which the germ cells of the later organisms are to come.
Stem mother. In a. strain of animal reproducing parthenogenetically the stem mother is the product of a fertilized egg but she produces parthcnogenetic eggs usually in large numbers.
Stereoblastula. A blastula in which all the cells are in close contact and no blaste- cocle is formed, as in N ereis.
Stereogastrula. A gastrula formed without a cavity by cpiboly as in many cases of spirally cleaving eggs.
Stolon. A “runner” or stalk produced by budding of the parent individual. From it new individuals are commonly budded off.
Stomodaeum. The oral part of the developing alimentary tract.
Strobila. The primary larval form of certain Scyphozoa during which the ephyrae are formed as a consequence of the elongation and constriction of the primary larva.
Superficial cleavage. The type of cleavage characteristic of centrolccithal eggs in which after a few preliminary divisions in the center of the eg the nucleated proto- 404 GLOSSARY O1" EMBRYOLOGICAL TERMS
plasmic areas, the so-called blastomercs, move to the surface and gradually form a superficial layer of cells, the blastoderm.
Synopsis. The pairing of homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes in the maturing germ cell prior to reduction.
Syncytium. An undivided mass of protoplasm containing several nuclei.
Tadpole. The larval form of higher amphibians and of ascirlians.
Teloblastic band. A hand of cells originally derived from two teloblasts, and pro- ducing later the mesoblastic somites.
Telolecithal eggs. Eggs in which the yolk is mainly accumulated in the vegetal hemisphere of the cell which is thus distinguished from the protoplasmic hemi- sphere.
Telophase. The final stages in a mitotic division involving the reconstruction of the daughter nuclei and the division of the cytoplasmic portion of the cell.
Tentacle plane. In a ctenophore the plane passing through the two tentacles.
Tettad. A chromosome consisting of four parts owing to the synapsis of the two homologous members of a pair.
Thelytokous eggs. Parthenogenetieally developing eggs which are exclusively female producing.
Thysanuriform. The same as eampodeiform.
Tornaria. The larval form of those races of the genus Balanoglossus which undergo metamorphosis.
Total cleavage. The segmentation of the entire egg including the yolk-filled portion.
Totipotency. The theory that individual blastomorcs when isolated are each capable of producing a complete organism.
Tritger. The portion of the trophoblast of the mammalian blastocyst which lies directly above the inner cell mass. Within it the false amniotic cavity often do- velops. Also known as trophoblastie knob.
Triploblastic. Of three germ layers, ectoderm, endoderm, and mosoderm.
Trochophore. A ciliated swimming larva characteristic of flatworms, annelids, molluscs, and some other groups. A troehosphere.
Trochosphere. Same as trochophore.
Trochozooid. One of the lateral zooids buddcd off of the stolen of the tunicnio Dali- olum which serves to nourish the colony.
Trophamnion. The nutritive layer of cytoplasm and paranuclei in polyemhryonic Hymenoptera.
Trophoblast. The portion of the outer ectodermal layer of a. mammalian blastoeyst which is in contrast to the formative cell of the ectoderm. It contributes no part to the development of the embryo proper, but functions in the attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus.
Ti-oplioblastic knob. See Trager.
Vegetal pole. The pole opposite the animal pole in the center of the yolk—la(lon hemisphere of the egg.
Veliger larva. The larva of many gasteropods.
Vitelline membrane. The egg membrane proper; homologous with cell wall of other cells. Often in invertebrates it is not given off until fertilization. So called because in bird eggs it envelopes the yolk mass.
Vitellophages. Cleavage nuclei and their adjacent cytoplasmic areas which are in contact with the yolk of meroblastic eggs and do not take part in the formation of the blastoderm, but function in the assimilation of yolk. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN EMBRYOLOGY 405
Viviparous. Producing young from eggs which are batched in the uterus and nourished there.
Yolk lobe or polar lobe. A lower sphere formed in the cleavage of Dentalium contain- ing cytoplasm and a certain amount of yolk which is not itself cleaved but is re- tracted into one of the blastomeres before the next division.
Yolk pyramids. In eggs with superficial cleavage the inner ends of the blastomeres which are yolk-filled and often fused at the center.
Zoaea. An early larva of the higher Crustacea. It precedes the megalops and is char- acterized by a large cephalothorax bearing spines, large eyes, and antennae and mouth parts adapted for swimming.
Zoanthella. A larval form of the actinian family Zoanthidae.
Zoanthina. A larval form of the actinian family Cereanthidae.
Zooecia. The individual calcified branches of a colony of bryozoans within which is the polypide or soft parts of the animal.
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INDEX OF AUTHORS
(NOTE: Illustrations are found on pages indicated by italic numbers.)
A
Amans, 300
AGAR, 330 AGARAS, 333 AoAssiz, 89, 174, 175, 177 ALLEN, 272, 273 ALLMAN, 142, 143 ALM, 332
AMMA, 277, 280 AI’1’ELL5F, 23 ARISTOTLE, 1, 2, 5 Arvrom, 328, 331 ASSHETON, 355
B
BALFOUR, 1, 4, 7, 118, 149,213 BALFOUR AND LONG, 134 BALTZER, 378
BANTA, 327, 328, 332 BARTELMEZ, 377
BATAILLON, 340
BATESON, 129, 181
BEARD, 271
BERGH, 93
BERNARD, 328
BICHAT, 6
Bzmwznow, 62
BoAs, 84
BOERHAAVE, 2
BOLK, 351
BONNET, 2, 322
Bo'r'r, 306
Bovnm, 17, 30, 46, 47, 49, 276, 278, 376,
377, 379
BRACKET, 44
BRAEM, 307, 311
BRANDT, 229
BRAUER, 62, 70, 107, 228, 331 BRAUER, ALFRED, 167 Bnooxs, F. G., 350, 366 Bnooxs, W. K., 142, 144 Bnooxs AND Rm'rENnoUsE, 109 BROWN’, 6
BRUMPT, 331
BRYCE, 255 BUCHNER, 221, 222 BURY, 130
C
CALDWELL, 186
CAN0, 67
CASTEEL, 60
CERFONTAINE, 34, 35, 36, 92, 99 CHAMBERS, 209, 332
CHAMISSO, 319
CHILD, 58, 59
CHUN, 346
CLAPP, 376
CLAUS, 104, 146, 147, 163, 164 C02, 58
CONKLIN, 26, 36, 38, 40, 41, 53, 54, 55,
60, 94, 95, 98, 101, 126, 370, 377
CORNING, 252
CRAMPTON, 61
CUENOT, 349
Cnvma, 6
D
DARWIN, 6
DEAN, 34, 77, 80, 81
DE BEER, 292, 351, 352 DELAGE, 340, 341
DELAGE AND HEROUARD, 289, 290 DELLA VALLE, 318
Dorms, 272
DOFLEIN, 219
DOHRN, 6
DONCASTER, 338
Dnu-zscn, 372, 373, 377, 378, 381 DUJARDIN, 6
E
EHLERS, 309
EHRENBERG AND BRAUER, 210 EIGENMANN, 213, 214, 271 ELPATIEWSKY, 276, 279 EvANs, 299
429 430 INDEX OF AUTHORS
EWING, 333 Eycnmsmrmm, 80
F
FAn1ucms, 6 FERNANDM, 362 FIRKET, 273 Fxscmnn, 378 FLEMMING, 7 FOL, 161 Fucma, 341, 379
GALEN, 5 GALLOWAY, 312 GAMBLE, 386 GARSTANG, 351 GEROULD, 58 GIACOMINE, 213, 240 GIARD, 346
Gonrm, 110 GOLDSCHMIDT, 338, 340 Go'ro, 179
GRASSI, 351
GRAY, 340 GRENACHER, 121 GRIMM, 349 GROBBEN, 280 GROBSER, 250 Gunrwrrscn, 381
H
HAECKEL, 7, 95, 107, 286, 289, 290 HAGUE, 360 '
HAHN, 272
HALLEE, 2
HARGITT, C. W., 142, 276 HAnarr'r, G. T., 194, 195, 273, 274 HARM, 94, 108
HARMAN AND GARDINER, 226 HARMER, 357, 358
HARNLEY, 378
HARTMAN, 76, 186, 188, 189, 190, 197 HARVEY, E. N., 340
HARVEY, WM., 1, 2, 6
HASPER, 280
HATBCHEK, 32, 77, 131, 134 HEATH, 60
HEGNER, 278, 279, 280, 348, 379, 380 Hnxmm, 64, 169, 181, 183 HEILIBRUNN, 340
HEIN, 145
HENNECKE. 333
HERBST, 340
HERLANT, 340
Hmuucx, 165, 288, 384 Hmvrwm, 0., 92, 326, 372, 381 Hmvrwra, 0. AND R., 282 Hmvrwm, R., 339 Hmmons, 60
HICKSON, 23, 108
HILL, 76, 186, 187, 190, 197 HILL, 360
Hrs, 7, 371
HOFFMANN, 272
HOLL, 216
HOLMES, 60
Hooxrz, 6
HUBER, 205
HUBRECBT, 200, 204 HUXLEY, 300
JACOBS, 379
JENKINSON, 243, 248, 375 JOHNSON, 311
JORDAN, 272, 376 Josmm, 301
JULIN, 318
JUST, 340, 343, 377
K
KAHLE, 280 KEIBEL, 200, 291, 345 KELLICOTT, 207 KINGERY, 273 KLEINENBERG, 275, 359 Komnrrz, 301 Kénuxmz, 6 KOLLMANN, 346 Kopscn, 90 Konscumzr AND Hmnmn, 218, 298, 317,
375 _ KOSTANECKI, 17 KOWALEVSKY, 7, 134 KOWALEVSKY AND CHUN, 123 KOWALEVSKY AND MARION, 23 KRAEPELIN, 310 Kntlemn, 325, 328, 331 KUEHN, 332
L
LANG, 57, 147, 148, 149 LANanANs, 253, 332 LANKESTER, 371 LECAILLON, 228 INDEX OF AUTHORS
LEEUWENI-IOEK, 2, 6
Lmmvnm, 326
LEIBY AND HILL, 360, 361, 362 LEUCKART, 171, 173
LILLIE, F. R., 17, 26, 60, 216, 289, 294,
340
LILLIE, R. S., 340 LINNAEUS, 6
Loma, 329, 339, 341, 342, 343 Lona AND BANCROFT, 340 LYON, 26, 381
M
MAAB, 136, 140 MACINTOSH, 315 MALAQUIN, 313 MALPIGHI, 1, 2, 6 MARECHAL, 360 MARK, 7 MARTIN, 360 MCCLENDON, 379 MEAD, 58, 339 MECKEL, 288 MEHNERT, 291, 345 MENDEL, 7 MENZEL, 332 METCALF, 60
METCHNIKOFF, 33, 34, 105, 134, 141, 352
MINCHIN, 136, 140 MINOT, 186 Mm-suxmu, 236 MONTGOMERY, 333
Mom”, 133, 181, 182, 183, 338, 339,
375, 376, 378 Moao,.327 MORTENSEN, 23 Mb‘LLER, C., 314 MULLER, F., 4, 7, 289 Mh‘LLx«m, Jon., 239 MULLER, O. F., 162 MULLER, W., 332 MULLER, H. J., 147, 293
N
NAnoUns, 330, 338 NACHTSHEIM, 338 NELSON, 58 NEUMANN, 320 NEWMAN, 363 NEWPORT, 6, 376 Norms, 327 Nussnwm, 271
O OKKELBERG, 272 OLOFFSON, 332 OPFEL, 345
P PACE, 93 PANDER, 1, 3, 6 PARMENTER, 341 PASTEUR, 7
PA’1'1'EN, 217, 103
PA'x'I'ERsoN, 89, 116, 338, 353 et seq.,
363, 364, 365
PEACOCK AND HARRISON, 330, 338
PENNER, 360 PERKINS, 301 PFLUGER, 372, 381 PREVOST, 6 PUNNET1‘, 326, 330
R
RABL, 371, 372 REDI, 6 REICHENBACH, 162 REITH, 65, 379, 380 REMAK, 7
RETZIUS, 214, 215 RHUMBLER, 99 RICHARDS AND THOMPSON, 272 RI'I"I‘ER., 181 Ronmvr, 56, 60 ROBERTSON, 330 ROSENBERG, 325 Roux, 7, 379 RUCKERT, 82, 83 RUNNs'm6M, 377 Russo, 223
SALENSKY, 318 SARs, 174 SCHAUDINN, 301 SCHLEXDEN, 7 SCI-ILEIP, 322, 379 SCHRADER, 329 Scnuurzm, 7, 96, 137 SCHWANN, 7 Scuwmx, 132 SEELIGER, 130, 319 Smmm, 329, 338 SELENKA, 28, 186 SELYS-LONGCHAMPS, 133
431 432 INDEX OF AUTHORS
SEVERINUS, 6
SHEAREE, 341
SHEARER. AND LLoYD, 340 SKULL, 323, 326, 327 SILVESTRI, 360
SMITH, 332
Soanomv, 333
SPEMANN, 376, 378, 380 SPURGEON AND Bnooxs, 186 STAUFEACHEE, 211 STEVENS, 379
STOCKARD, 346, 356 STRASSBURGER, 7, 338 SURFACE, 57, 123, 147 SWAMMERDAM, 6
Sw1I~'r, 272
SWINGLE, 272, 273, 274
T
TANNHEUTHER, 338 TAYLOR, 332
TAYLOR AND TENNANT, 378 TICHOMIZROW, 218
TORREY, 58
TREADWELL, 58
TREMBLY, 301
TYNDALL, 7
U ULJANIN, 320 UzEL, 66, 69
V
VAN BENEDEN, 197, 199, 318, 371, 372 VANDEL, 328, 333
VASSEUR, 298
VEBRIL, 288
VERWORN, 310
VEsALIUs, 5
VIALLETON, 72, 73, 120
Vmcnow, 7
voN BAER, 1, 3, 4, 6, 288, 289 voN BERENBERG-GOSSLER, 273 voN Gnome‘, 305
voN KENNEL, 312
voN MOHL, 6
voN SIEEOLD, 7
V0»: UnIscH, 377
voN WAGNER, 296
W
WALDEYER, 194, 271
WATASE, 70
WEIsMANN, 9, 275, 276, 331, 332 WELCH, 360
WHITING, A., 326
WI-IITING, P. W., 330
WHITMAN, 60, 371, 372
WHITMAN AND EYCLESHYMEE, 78, 79 WHITNEY, 323, 326, 327 WIERZEJSKI, 17, 60, 125
WILSON, C. B., 58
WILSON, E. B., 17, 23, 57, 58, 123, 159,
160, 339, 377
WILSON, H. V., 87, 299
WILSON AND MATHEWS, 376 WINCKLER, 328, 333, 338 WOHLGEMUTH, 332
WoI.I='I-‘, 1, 2, 6 WOLTERECK, 158, 159, 332 WOODS, 272 WOODWARD, 312
Y YATSU, 377, 378
Z
ZELENY, 57, 58, 377 ZELLER, 350
ZIEGLER, 32, 34, 45, 88, 114 ZUR STRASSEN, 49
SUBJECT INDEX
NOTE: Numbers in italic type indicate pages on which illustrations are found; numbers in bold-face type indicate pages on which the principal discussion of a
subject is found.
Acanthias, 81, 239, 266
Acanthopsyche, 335
Acceleration, 293
Accidental polyembryony, 354 Acipenser, 77, 78, 267
Actimla, 303
Actinians, 106, 123, 304
Actinozoa, 141, 142, 144, 145
Actinula, 142, 144
Aegenopsis, 105, 144, 260
Aequorea, 104, 260
Agametocytogony, 295
Agemlaszris, 336, 360
Albia, 335
Alcyonians, 108, 123
Alcyomlmn, 23. 62, 261
Alecithal eggs, 24, 192
Aleurodes, 335
Allantois, 233, 238, 240, 243, 244, 247 Allantws, 335
Alternation of generations, 295, 300, 302,
314
Alternation rule, 29
Amauronematus, 335, 336
Amblyomma, 333
Amblystoma, 267, 344, 347
Ametabola, 170
Ametastegia, 336
Amia, 77, 78, 7.9, 80, 267, 272, 273 Amnion, 154, 203,225, 227, 228, 229, 230,
233, 235, 236, 246; of insects, 166, 229; of pilidium, 154, 225, 227
Amnion formation, methods of, 204 Amniota, 119, 235
Amphibia, 43, 76, 88, 112, 113, 119, 132,
223, 224, 267, 273, 274, 286, 1287, 341, 344, 347, 348, 378, 379, 381, 386; cleav- age of, 43 Amphiblastula, 95, I36, 137
Amphigony, 295
Amphineura, 60
Amphioxus, 28, 34, 35, 36‘, 37, .92, 9.9, 101,
131, 134, 266, 355, 373, 378
Amphitrite, 263, 341
Amphiuma, 267, 286, 287 Amphoterotoky, 324
Anableps, 240
Anamnia, 119, 235
Anaphoidea, 336
Anaphothrips, 335
Andricus, 336
“Animal World,” 386
Annclid trochophore, 157
Annelida, 17, 58, 59, 60, 61, 93, 100, 102,
122, 126, 156, 158, 16.9, 176, 213, 223, 225, 227, 263, 285, 310, 312, 314, 331, 339, 341, 353, 359, 360, 371, 373, 377, 378, 381
Ant, 230, 324
Anthomedusae, 105
Anthozoa, 2'10, 303
Anura, 273, 274, 286, 373
Aphididae, 335
Aphids, 322, 338
A phis, 335
Apoidea, 337
Apolar ingression, 105
Apotettix, 330, 334
Appendicularia, 266, 348
Aptcm, 333
Apterona, 335
A pteryz, 225
Apus, 223, 264, 331
Arachnids, 120, 330
Arbacia, 263, 339, 340, 342, 343 Archieracium, 325
Architomy, 296, 305, 314
Aremlcola, 58, 69, 60, 263
Arge, 336
433 434
Armadillo, 295, 321, 355, 356, 362, 364, 365
Arrhenotoky, 324, 326, 327
Artemia, 62, 264, 328, 331
Arthropoda, 68, 100, 105, 122, 128, 295, 330, 333, 353, 373; see also Insects, Scorpions
Artificial parthenogenesis, 339
Ascaris, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 22, 46, 47, 48, 103, 262, 276, 377, 379
Ascidians, 21, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 68, 76, 95, 220, 225, 266, 286, 239, 316, 318, 319, 320, 321, 348, 355, 366, 379, 381
Asellus, 128, 265
Asexual reproduction, 295, 351
Asphelinus, 337
Aspidiotiphagus, 337
Astacus, 128, 162, 163,265
Asterias, 171,, 176, 176, 177, 263,341
Asterina, 178, 263, 341
Asteroidea, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 263,296,341
Astropecten, 263, 326
Atoke, 312
Augmentation, 296
Aulacidea, 336
Aurelia, 145, 146‘, 147, 261
Auricularia, 173
Autotomy, 296
Axolotl, 344, 346, 347
Bacillus, 334 Balanoglossus, 92, 101, 12.9, 181, 183, 266, 316
Balanus, 164, 265
Bat, 207, 249
Bdellostoma, 81, 219, 266
Bee, 230, 323, 324, 338
Belzme, .90, 267
Berbe, 32, 33, 261, 378
Bilateral cleavage, 34, 374
Biogenesis, 286
Bipinnaria, 172, 173, 174, 176
Birds, 76, 89, 116, 224, 236, 237
Bladder worm, 152
Blastea, 290
Blastocones, 74, 76, 114, 120
Blastocyst, of armadillo, 363; of mam-
mals, 193, 196 Blastopore, 116, 117, 118; of Anamnia and Amniota, 117
SUBJECT INDEX
Blastotomy, 354
Blastozooid, 617, 321
Blastula, 91, 283
Blood, circulation of, 6
Bolina, 261, 350
Bombus, 170
Bosmina, 331
Bougainvillia, 144, 260, 303
Brachiola, 177, 178
Brachiolaria, 178
Brachionus, 327
Brachiopoda, 92, 100, 134
Braconids, 337
Branched placenta, 249 Branchiobdella, 223, 263 Branchiopoda, 331
Branchipus, 62, 128, 165, 223, 264, 331 Bnwhus, 167, 168
Bryozoa, 90, 93, 296, 307, 308, 316, 354,
358 Budding, 295, 296, 300, 301, 316, 317, 318, 351, 355
Cadophore, 321 Caenogenesis, 292; see also Cenogenesis Calandra, 334
Caliroa, 336
Calliamira, 33, 34, 261 Calligrapha, 380
Callipterus, 335
Calopteryx, 22.9, 230 Campanularia, 144, 260 Campodeiform larva, 170 Campodm, 6.9, 170, 171 “Cannibalism,” 223 Carcharias, 81, 266 Carnivora, 200, 248, 253 Casual parthenogenesis, 324 Cat, 221, 250
Caterpillar, 170
Cecidomyia, 348
Cell division, 7, 10, 22
Cell lineage, 20; of Ascaris, 49; of Cyn-
thia, 42
Cell theory, 7
Cenogenesis, 290
Central implantation, 200 Centrifuge, 381 Centrolecithal eggs, 24, 63 Centrosome, 7 Cepludodiscus, 263, 315, 316' SUBJECT INDEX
Cephalopoda, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 119, 120, 121, 219, 223, 226, 264
Ceratodus, 224
Ceratophis, 335
Cercaria, 151
Cerebratulus, 67, 58, 153, 154, 262, 355,
377, 378, 381
Ceropteres, 336
Cestode larvae, 151
Cestodes, 90, 151, I52, 284, 306, 353, 358 Cestracion, 80, 81, 266
Cetacea, 248
Chaetopterus, 339, 341
Chalcides, 240
Chalcids, 336
Chelonia, 236, 237, 267
Chelydra, 237
Chick, 116, 230, 290, 377
Chilopoda, 333
Chironomus, 280, 335,346, 349
Chitan, 60, 101, 263
Chordata, 122, 124
Chorion, 218, 230
Chorophylus, 267, 379
Chromatin diminution, 48, 275, 278 Chromosomes, 7, 9
Chrysallogenesis, 346, 349
Chrysomelid beetles, 266, 281, 380 Chydorus, 332
Cimbex, 336
Ciona, 36, 266, 348, 381
Cirripedia, 62, 164, 265, 287, 288, 290, 332 Cladius, 336
Cladocera, 68, 103, 265, 323, 324, 327,
328, 330, 331, 332 Classification of animals, 5, 260; of plants, 5; of egg types, 23
Clava, 94, .95, 107, 108, 144, 260 Clavmlaria, 23, 260, 303
Cleavage, function of, 370
Cleavage types, 20; table of, 25 Clemmys, 236', 237, 267
Clepsine, 60, 263, 371
Cliona, 136, 260
Closed parthenogenesis, 324
Closure of blastopore, 116, 118
Clytia, 141, 228, 230, 260, 378
Coccidae, 335
Coccophagus, 337
Cochlophora, 335
Cocoons, 223
435
Cod, 384
Coelenterata, 23, 30, 62, 90, 92—95, 99, 103-109, 122, 123, 141-147, 209, 210, 223, 228, 230, 260, 261, 296, 300-304, 353, 378
Coeloblastic delamination, 105
Coeloblastula, 36, 91
Coelome formation, mesenchymatous, 133; method of, 129
Coelome of starfish, 178, 180
Coelome origin, theories of, 133
Coelome sacs of echinoids, 130
Coelomes, head, collar, and body, 129
Colembola, 168
Coleoptera, 166, 168, 170, 228, 229, 230, 266, 281. 334, 380
Colony formation, 297, 300
Cmnatula, 130, 263
Concrescence, 113, 114,300
Copepoda, 62, 163, 164, 911, 212, 325, 332, 379
Copidosoma, 266, 280, 336, 360
Corona radiata, 195
Corpus luteum, 196
Corredentia, 335
Corymmeura, 335
Cotyledonary placenta, 249
Cow, 250
Crab, 288
Crangon, 166
Crayfish, 100
Crepixiula, 53, 55, 60, 61, 93, .94, 101, 126, 264
Crinoidea, 173
Crissia, 262, 308, 357, 358
Cristatella, 262, 307, 310, 311
Croesus, 336
Crustacea, 62, 68, 100, 102, 103, 128, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 211, 212, 223, 264, 265, 286, 287, 288, 290, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 330, 331, 332, 333, 379, 384
Ctenodnllus, 263, 312, 314
Ctenolabrus, 8.9, 267
Ctenophores, 32, 33, 34, 102, 123, 261, 283, 350, 373, 378
Cubomedusae, 108
Cucumaria, 23, 62, 263
Cumaoeae, 68
Cumlna, 143, 260
Cyclas, 101, 264
Cyclops, 163, 164, 211, 212, 379 436
Cyclostornata, 76, 354 Cyclostomes, 76, 77, 81, 110, 120, 212, 213, 219, 234,266
Cynipoidea, 336
Cynips, 336
Cynthia, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 95, 266, 348 Cypris, 2.90
Cypnls, 332
Cysticereoid, 152
Cysticercus, 152, 306‘
Cytology, 9
Cytotrophoblast, 253
Daplinia, 265, 324, 330, 331 Daphnids, 323
Dasypus, 268, 363
Dasyurus, 76, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190,
242, 268
Decapoda, 68
Decidua basalis, 254
Decidua capsular-is, 254
Decidua reflexa, 254
Decidua vera, 254
Deciduate placenta, 243, 248, 251 Decticus, 218
Delamination, 105
Dendrocuelum, 223, 261 Dentalium, 101, 264, 377 Derivatives of germ layers, 283 Dermaptera, 168, 230
Dem, 263, 312
Desor’s larva, 153 Determination, 27, 368 Determination problem, 368 Determinative cleavage, 26, 30, 60 Deuterostomia, 124
Deviation, 292
Diaspis, 335
Dazelphys, 186, 187, 188, 139, 190, 1.91,
242, 268
Didemnids, 318
Diemyctylus, 376
Differentiation, 22, 368
Diffuse placenta, 249
Dimzphilus, 330, 331
Dipleurula, 173, 175, 176
Diploid number, 13
Diploid parthenogenesis, 325 Diplopoda, 333
Diplosomids, 318
Dipnoi, 220, 224
SUBJECT INDEX
Diptera, 65, 168, 170, 230, 293, 335 Discoblastula, 96
Discocoelis, 57, 261 Discogastrula, 110
Discoidal cleavage, 68, 81 Discoidal placenta, 248, 252 Discus proligcrus, 194, 220, 222 Disogeny, 346
Distaplia, 266, 318
Distoma, 209, 262 Disymmetrical cleavage, 32, 374 D‘L':c'£ppus, 334
Dog, 194, 207, 252 Dahchoglossus, 181, 266 Doliolum, 266, 320, 321, 366 Dondersia, 101, 264 Drastrophus, 336
Driessertsia, 210, 264
Dromia, 67, 95, 265
Drosophila, 65, 230, 293 Dryophanta, 336
Dunaliella, 327
Earthworm, 354, 359
Eccentric implantation, 201
Echidna, 185, 225, 267
Echinarachnius, 263, 340
Echinococcus, 358
Echinodermata, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 62, 92, 100, 122, 124, 130, 134, 172-176, 178, 180, 225, 228, 263, 284, 296, 315, 339, 341, 353, 376, 381
Echinoids, 30, 31, 173, 228, 339, 376, 381; coelome sacs of, 130
Echinopluteus, 225, 228
Echinorhynchus, 209, 262
Echinus, 340, 377
Echinus rudiment, 228
Ecological control of larvae, 383
Ectoblast, 283
Ectoderm, 283
Ectomesoderm, 122-124
Ectoplasm, 38
Ectoprocta, 307
Ectapsocus, 335
Edentata, 248
Egg fragments, 377
Egg membranes, 209
Egg types, 20
Elasmobranchs, 76, 81, 116, 132,213, 223, 234, 239, 266 SUBJECT INDEX
Elenchus, 334
Embolie gastrulation, 98
Embryological conditions of animals in
the various phyla, table of, 258
Embryology, history of, 1-7
Embryonic development, periods of, 8 Embryonic knob, 200, 203, 206, 243 Embryonic membranes, 225, 241; of
mammals, table of, 256
Embryonic shield, 206
Empria, 336
Emzarsia, 336
Encyrtus, 336
Endoblast, 283
Endoderm, 283; of mammals, 190 Endoderm formation, 98 Endomesodcrm, 124
Endoplusm, 38
Endoprocta, 308
Entedon, 336
Enterocoele formation, 130
Enterocoele theory, 133, 134 Enteropncusta, 92, 101, 122, 124, 128,
129, 130, 181, 266, 316 Entomostraca, 62, 68, 103, 163, 164, 211, 212, 223, 265, 287, 288, 323, 324, 325, 328, 331, 332, 379
Entypy, 201, 204
Ephemerida, 168
Ephydatia, 2.99
Ephyra, 147
Epiblast, 283
Epibolic gastrulation, 101
Epiboly, 36, 95, 102, 114
Epigenesis, 2, 368
Equal coeloblastula, 91
Equal stereoblastula, 93
Enlopeltis, 335
Eruciform larva, 170
Eudendrium, 144, 260
Eunice, 263, 31:‘?
Eupelmus, 337
Eupomotus, 100, 104, 263
Eurycnema, 334
Euscorpius, 7'0, 71, 266
Eutheria, 190, 192
Exoplasm, 38
Experimental embryology, 5, 17, 293,
339, 374 Experimental evidences for determina- tion, 374
437
Experimental paedogenesis, 351 Experimental polyembryony, 354
Facultative neoteny, 348
Facultative parthenogenesis, 323 False amnion, 206
Fasciola, 366
Fertilization, 12, 17, 339, 375 Fiona, 60, 264
Fish, 116, 223
Fission, 295, 296, 300
Flatworms, 122, 123, 354, 358; see also,
Platyhelminthes
Flustrella, 93, 262
Follicle, 217, 220, 221
Forbicina, 333
Formative changes, 375
Formieoidae, 337
4d cell, 284
Fragmentation, 296, 300, 304, 309 Free bud, 296, 297
Frog, 43, 44, 45, 286, 287, 378, 379, 381 Frustrulation, 300, 304
Fundulus, 213, 214, 267, 272, 293, 346 Fungia, 261, 303
Galeus, 81, 266
Gamete, 11
Gametocytogony, 295
Gametogencsis, 8, 10, 12
Ganoids, 213
Gasteropods, 53, 55, 60, 61, 93, 94, 101,
126,223, 263, 264
Gasterozooid, 367
Gastrea, 290
Gastrula, 98, 111, 115, 283 Gastrulation, 98, 115; diagrams of, 111;
methods of, 98
Gemmulae, 296, 297, 299
Genetics, 293
Genital cells of scorpion, 71
Geophilus, 333
Germ balls, 151, 296, 350
Germ-cell cycle, 8
Germ-cell determinants, 275, 279, 281 Germ cells, 271, 274, 275; primordial, 9 Germ disc, 116
Germ-layer theory, 282
Germ layers, 3, 283
Germ plasm, 7, 9
Germ-plasm doctrine, 271, 275 438
Gerontomorphosis, 293 Geryomia, 106, 223, 260 Gomlonemus, 143, 260, 301 Gonocoele theory, 134 Gonothyrca, 144, 260 Gonozooid, 321, 367 Grasshopper, 10, 12, 338 Grouse locust, 338 Growth, 22, 375
Growth period, 10, 11 Guinea pig, 207, 245 Gunda, 134, 261 Gymnophiona, 76, 88, 119 Gyrodactylus, 262, 349
Habroba-acon, 326, 330 Habrocytus, 337
Haleremila, 260, 301 Halistemma, 260, 302
Haploid parthenogenesis, 325 Hedgehog, 200, 201, 207 Heliothrips, 335
H ehx, 223, 229, 264 Hemichroa, 336
H erniclepsis, 331
Hemiptera, 168, 325, 335 Hen, 216
Hensen’s node, 208 Hermaphroditism, 328 Heterochrony, 291, 344, 345 Heterogony, 295 Heterometabola, 168 Hetermwreis, 312
Heterotypic mitosis, 13, 16 Hexacanth embryo, 151 Hexactinellidae, 299 Hezcanchus, 81
Hibernacula, 309
Hieracium, 325
I-Iippomanes, 251
Hirudinia, 60, 223, 263, 371 I-Ioloblastic cleavage, 24, 25, 28 Holometabola, 168 Holothuroidea, 23, 28, 29, 62, 173, 263 Homarus, 165, 265 Homeotypic mitosis, 13 Homolecithal eggs, 24, 192 Homologies, of annelids and molluscs, 61;
of mesoderm formation, 122
Homologous chromosomes, 13
SUBJECT INDEX
Homology of germ layers, 283
Human oocyte, 1.96
Hydatina, 262, 324, 326, 327, 329, 330
Hydra, 106, 107, 144, 209, 210, 260, 296, 301, 304
H ydractimla, 144, 260
Hydrocoele, 179, 180, 228
Hydrocorals, 108
Hydroids, 105, 106, 123, 296, 304, 381
H ydraphilus, 63, 64, 65, 68, 16.9, 224, 230, 266
Hydrozoa, 105, 106, 123, 141, 142, 144, 210, 296, 300, 304, 381
Hymenoptera, 168, 170, 230, 280, 325, 335, 349, 354, 360
Hypermorphosis, 293
Hypoblast, 283
H ypoderma, I 70
Ichneumonids, 337
Imaginal discs, 155
Implantation, methods of, 200 Indeterminative cleavage, 26 Ingression, 102——105
Ingrowth, solid, 131
Inner cell mass, 200, 204, 243, 363 Insectivora, 200, 201, 246
Insects, 68, 100, 166, 218, 225, 330, 333,
348, 377, 379, 386; showing partheno— genesis, table of, 333
Instar, 168
Intermediate placenta, 249
Internal buds, 296
Intersexes, 327
Interstitial implantation, 201 Invaginate insect amnion, 229 Invaginate gastrula, 98
lnvagination, 36, 95, 114; mechanism of,
99
Inversion of germ layers, 204 Invertebrate discoblastula, 97 Invertebrate germ cells, 275 Invertebrate larvae, 136; table of, 137 Involution, 36
Irregular cleavage, 90; of Cestodes, 151 I schnochiton, 60, 263
Isolated blastomeres, 378
Isolecithal eggs, 24, 192
Isopoda, 68, 128, 333
Isoptera, 230
Isasoma, 337 SUBJECT INDEX 439
Jellyfish, 30 J ulus, 265, 352
K eimbahn, 275
Laceration, 300, 304
Lacerta, 214, 215, 217, 267 Lachnosterna, 170 Lamellibranchia, 60, 101, 264 Lamprey, 76
Larva, of Desor, 153; of Scyphozoa, 145 Larvacea, 348
Larvae of invertebrates, 136 Larval mesoblast, 123 Larval parthenogenesis, 324 Lecamlum, 335
Lemuroidea, 248
Lepas, 62, 265
Lepidoptera, 166, 168, 230, 325, 335 Lepidosaphes, 335 Lepidosiren, 224, 267 Lepakiosteus, 77, 79, 80, 267 Lepidurus, 328, 331
Lepisma, 170
Leptimla, 334
Leptinotarsa, 266, 280, 380 Leptodora, 265, 332 Leptomedusae, 105 Leptoplana, 57, 261 Leucosolemla, 136, 137, 260, 297, 2.98 Libellula, 170
Iximax, 223, 264
Lineus, 153, 262
Liothrips, 335
Liquor folliculi, 195
Liriope, 143, 260
Ixitomastix, 336, 360
Liver fluke, 150, 350, 366 Lobster, 68, 166, 988, 384 Localization of median plane, 375 Locustidae, 334
Loligo, 72, 121, 223, 264 Lmnyctes, 333
Lophyrus, 336
Lucemaria, .93, 260
Lucifer, 62, 165, 265
Lufa, 335
Lumbricids, 223 Lumbriculus, 263, 314 Lumbricus, 100, 263, 359
M achilis, 333
Macrobiotus, 333
Macrocentrus, 360
Macrotoma, 66‘, 266
Maggot, 170
Malacostraca, 68, 286, 332
Mammalian embryo, 185
Mammals, 185 et seq., 221, 241, 256
(table), 373; embryonic membranes of, 241
Man, 195, 207, 249, 254, 255
Mantidae, 334
Mantis, 334
M antispa, 171
Marine animals, 386
Marsupials, 76, 186, 241
Maturation period, 10, 11
Meconema, 218, 219
Mecoptera, 168
Median plane, 48, 375
Medusa, 142, 145, 302
Melanotus, 170
M elittobia, 336
Membranes, 209 et seq., 224, 244, 249,
256 Meroblastic cleavage, 24, 25, 62 Mesenchyme, 124, 283, 284; of trocho- phore, 123
Mesoblast, 283
Mesoderm, 283
Mesoderm bands: derived, 127; primi-
tive, 125; secondary, 127
Mesoderm cell, 60
Mesoderm formation, 122; in insects, 166 Mesoglea, 122
Mesoplasm, 38
O Mesothelium, 284
Metagenesis, 295, 300, 302, 314, 356 Metamorphosis, 173, 177, 385; cataclys- mal, 173; of Asterias, 177-180
Metanauplius, 163, 165
Miastor, 266, 278, 279, 280, 324, 348, 349 Microhydra, 260, 301
Microleeithal eggs, 192
Mmomezus, 336
Microscope, invention of, 6
Microstoma, 261, 306
Microterys, 336
Micrura, 58, 262
Migration of germ cells, 271, 272 Miracidiuxn, 150 440
Mites, 68, 333
Mixed delamination, 105
Moina, 280, 327, 332
Mole, 207
M olgula, 36.266, 348
Mollusca, 53, 55, 60, 61, 93, 94, 100, 101,
102, 103, 122, 123, 126, 156, 160, 161, 176, 223, 263, 264, 283, 295, 349, 373, 378,381
Molluscan trochophore, 160 Molluscoidea, 307
M onandroptera, 334
Monkey, 248, 255
Monogony, 295
Monotremes, 76, 185, 225, 241, 242, 267 Morphological evidence for determina-
tion, 373
Morula, 94
Morula delamination, 106
Mosaic theory of development, 327 Mouse, 207, 245, 252
Mi‘1ller’s larva, 147
Multiplication period, 10, 11
Multipolar ingression, 105
M usca, 65, 230
M ustelus, 81, 23.9, 266
Myriamlda, 313
Myriapoda, 68, 330
M yflnzcophila, 334
Mysis, 163, 165
M ysis, 288
Mytilus, 210
Myxinoids, 76, 116, 120, 234
Narcomedusae, 302
Nauplius, 162
Nauplius, structure of, 163
N auplius larva, 162-165, 2.90
Nebalia, 68, 265
Necturus, 267, 344, 348
Nematodes, 46, 92, 103, 122, 123, 209, 262, 295, 328, 330, 331, 373, 377; see also, Ascaris.
Nematus, 336
Nemerteans, 57, 58, 100, 122, 123, 152, 153, 154, 262, 355, 373, 377, 378, 381
Neotenous organs, 351
Neoteny, 292, 344 et seq.
Nepa, 218
Nephridia, origin of, 159
Nephrocoele theory, 134
SUBJECT INDEX
Nereis, 17, 58, 159, 213, 263, 312, 341, 377, 381
Neurocliordal cells, 41
Neuroptera, 168
Neuroterus, 336
Nomenclature, of Crepidula, 54; of Cyn-
thia, 40
Non—desiduate placenta, 248
Nopoiulus, 333
N otodanus, 81
Nuclear events in gametogcnesis, 12 Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, 22
Nucleus, 6
Number of young, 384
Obelia, 105, 144, 260, 302 Objections, to biogcnetic law, 291; to germ-layer theory, 284
Obligatory parthenogenesis, 323 Occasional parthenogcnesis, 324 Octopus, 121, 219, 264
Odonata, 168, 170, 230
Oedipoda, 218
Oligocliaeta, 60, 126, 296
Onchospherc, 152
Ontogeny, 8, 286, 292, 294
Oiicyte, 11, 12, 1.95
Oiigonia, 10, 11, 193
Oéiplasin, 12
Oéizoid, 317, 321, 366
Open par-thenogenesis, 324
Ophiothrix, 131, 263
Ophiuroidea, 171, 173, 176 Opisthobranchia, 60
Opossum, 76, 186, 187,188, 189, 190, 191,
242, 268 Optional parthenogcnesis, 323 Organ-forming regions, 21, 370 Organ-forming substances, 21, 371 Origin, of coclentcrate larvae, 142; of coelome, 133; of germ cells, 271
Ornithorhyrwhus, 185, 186, 267
Orthezia, 335
Orthoptera, 166, 168, 218, 325, 334 Ostracoda, 332
Ostrea, 101, 264
Otiorrhynchus, 334
Ovarian follicle, 217
Ovary, 1.94, 216'
“Overgrown” insect amnion, 229 Ovum, 221, 222; promorphology of, 284 SUBJECT INDEX
Pachynematus, 336
Pachythelia, 335
Paedogenesia, 151, 292, 325, 344, 346, 350 Paedomorphosis, 293 Palimanetes, 100, 265 Palingenesis, 290
Palleal budding, 317
Paludina, 101, 223, 264
Paniscus, 337
Paracentrotus, 340 Paracopidosomopsis, 336, 338, 360, 362 Parameles, 243
Paramzmomla, 261, 303
Pamtettiz, 330, 334
Paratomy, 296, 305, 314 Parenchymclla, 103 Parthenogenesis, 7, 151, 295, 297, 306,
322 et seq.; method of, 342; theory of, 341
Parthenolecamlum, 335 Parthenothm'ps, 335
Partial cleavage, 24
Patella, 103, 160, 264 Pathological parthenogenesis, 324 Pattern of cleavage, 374
Pause, developmental, 356 Pedicellina, 100, 262, 309 Pemzeus, 164, 165,265
Pennaria, 141, 144, 260 Pentarthron, 336
Perameles, 243, 268
Perca, 213, 214, 267 Perennibranchiates, 348 Periblast, 114
Periblastula, 95
Peribranchial budding, 317 Peripatus, 128
Periplaneta, 209, 223 Perivitelline space, 211 Permanent buds, 296, 300 Perophom, 318
Petromyzon, 77, 110, 212, 219, 266 Phalacropteryx, 335
Phanacis, 336
Phascolarctus, 186, 268
Phasma, 334
Phasmidae, 334
Phericlista, 336
Phoronis, 92, 100, 133, 262 Phorozooid, 321 Phylactolaemata, 307
\
441
Phyllium, 334
Phyllopoda, 62, 128, 165, 223, 264, 328, 331 Phyllotoma, 336
Phylloxerans, 338
Phylogeny, 286, 292
Phymatocera, 336
Physa, 17, 60, 61, 125, 264
Pig, 207, 250
Pigeon, 116‘, 216', 377
Pilidium, 149, 153, 155 ; amnion of, 154,
225, 227; metamorphosis of, 153
Pisidium, 101,264
Placenta, 225, 230, 247, 248, 249, 252 Placentalia, 192, 193, 248, 249 Placoptera, 168, 170
Placula, 94
Planaria, 261, 304
Plcmocem, 57, 147, 148, 261
I’lanorbis, 21, 60, 101, 264
Plants, parthcnogenesis in, 338
Planula, 103, 104, 141, 144, 302 Plasmotrophobl ast, 253
Platygaster, 360, 361, 362 Platyhelminthes, 57, 90, 93, 102, 122, 123,
146, 147, 150, 151. 152, 223, 261, 283, 284, 296, 304, 306, 330, 350, 354, 358, 366
Platyptera, 168
Pleurobranchidium, 161, 264
Plumatella, 262, 308
Pluteus, 171
Podarke, 100, 263
Polar disc, 281
Polar ingression, 102
Polarity, 374
Pole plasm, 380
Polistes, 337
Polocytes, 11, 12, 34
Polychaetes, 312
Polyclads, 57, 93, 123
Polyembryony, 151, 297, 321, 338, 353 et
scq., 366; causes of, 354 _ Polygordius, 58, 100, 158, 15.9, 225, 227, 263
Polyovular follicles, 355
Polyp, 142, 302
Polyphemus, 23, 265, 332
Polypodium, 260, 301
Poly/stoma, 262, 350
Polytomla, 327
Polyxemus, 333 442
Polyzoa, 307
Pantamla, 336
Porifera, 90, 96, 122, 136, 137, 140, 260,
283, 284, 296, 297, 298, 299
Predelineation, 22, 26 Preformation, 2, 368
Pressure, 381
Primary egg membranes, 209, 210 Primitive mesoderm, 125 Primitive streak, 116, I18 Priophorus, 336'
Pnlwiphora, 336
Pristiurus, 81, 266
Proales, 327 .
Proamnion, 236 Proctrotrupidae, 337 Progenesis, 346
Promorphology, 20; of ovum, 284 Proscolex, 152
Prosobranchia, 60
Prospective potency, 372 Prospective significance, 27, 372 Prostomia, 124
Proteus, 267, 344, 348 Protogonozooid, 321
Protohydra, 260, 300 Protoplasm, 7
Protozoa, 297
Protozoaea, 163, 165 Pseudacris, 267, 379 Pseudoclauellaria, 336 Pseudococcus, 335
Psyche, 335
Pterobranchia, 315
Pteromalus, 336
Pteronidea, 336
Pulmonata, 60, 126
Pulzrinaria, 335
Pygosteus, 214
Pyrosomes, 68, 76
Rabbit, 197, 199, 207, 222, 245
Racial differences in germ cells, 274 Radial cleavage, 28, 374
Raja, 81, 266
Ram, 112, 113, 132, 267, 341 Rzmatra, 218
Raphiderus, 334
Rat, blastocyst of, 205
Rate of mammalian development, 202 Rathke’ s yolk pyramids, 65
SUBJECT INDEX
Rauber’s layer, 201, 203 Recapitulation, 4, 286, 344
Redia, 1151
Reduction, 12 -
Regeneration, 297, 304, 314
Renilla, 23, 62, 261
Reptiles, 76, 89, 116, 118, 119, 236, 237 Restricted unipolar ingression, 102 Retardation, 293
Rhabdites, 325, 328, 331
Rhabdocoel, 223
Rhabdopleura, 263, 315, 317 Rhizocephala, 288, 332
Rhodites, 336
Rodent, 244
Rotifera, 50, 102, 122, 123, 262, 283, 323,
324, 326, 327, 329, 330 Ruminants, 249
Sacculina, 265, 288, 2.90
Sachs~He1-twig laws, 51
Sachs’ principle, 29
Saga, 334
Sagartia, 261, 303
Sagitta, 91, .92, 100, 134, 223, 263, 276‘, 279
Saissetia, 335
Salanumdra, 240, 267, 344 Salamandridae, 286
Salmo, 88, 115, 267
Salmon, 115
Salpa, 266, 319, 320, 321, 366 Salpidae, 225
Sauropsida, 230, 235, 241 Schedius, 336
Schizopoda, 68, 103
Scorpions, 68, 70, 71, 119, 225, 228 Scutellista, 337
Scyllium, 81, 82, 83, 213, 266 Scyphistoma, 303, 304 Scyphomedusae, 106
Scyphozoa, 141, 142, 144, 145, 303,304 Seasonal parthenogenesis, 324 Sea-urchin, 30, 31, 228, 339, 376, 381 Secondary delamination, 106 Secondary egg membranes, 209, 223 Selandria, 336
Sepia, 72, 73, 74, 75, 121, 223, 264 Serosa, 228, 230, 233, 235; of insects, 166 Serranus, 87, 267
Sessile adults, 383
Sex, 326
Sexual reproduction, 295 Shark, 213, 223
Silk moth, 324 Sinwcephalus, 265, 331 Siphonaptera, 168 Siphonophores, 108, 210 Siredon, 267, 347
Siren, 267, 287, 348 Sirenia, 248
Solenobia, 329, 335
Some, 9
Somatic number, 13 Somatopleure, 231
Sarcx, 246, 268 Sparganophilus, 263, 360 Specific polyembryony, 354 Spermatogenesis, 12 Spermatogonia, 10, 11 Sphodromantis, 334 Spiders, 333
Spiral cleavage, 50, 284, 374 Splanchnopleure, 231 Sponges, 90, 122, 284, 296, 299 Spontaneous generation, 7 Sporadic polyetnbryony, 354 Sporocyst, 151
Sporulation, 295
Squalus, 81, 266
Squid, 2596‘
Squilla, 165, 265
Squirrel, 245
Stadia, 168
Stains, 7
Starfish, 296
Statoblasts, 296, 309 Staurodorsia, 264, 349 Stauromedusae, 108 Stewwstoma, 261, 306 Stereoblastula, 93 Stereogastrula, 103 Sterrhopteryz, 335
Stolo prolifer, 318 Stoloniferous budding, 297, 300, 302, 316,
317
Strepsiptera, 168, 334 Strobilia, 147 Strobilization, 303 Stronglyogaster, 336 Strzmgylocentrotus, 30, -31, 263, 340, 374 Stylops, 334
Summer eggs, 23, 324
Superficial blastula, 95 Superficial cleavage, 62 Sycandra, .96‘, 136, 137, 140, 260 Syllids, 312
Syllis, 263, 316
Sylon, 332
Symmetry, 374
Synapsis, 15
Synapta, 28, 2.9, 263
Syncytial delamination, 108
Tables: Events in history of embryology, 5 Classification of cleavage types, 25 Cell lineage of Cynthia, 42 Cell lineage of Ascaris, 49 Cell lineage of Crepidula, facing p. 56 Types of invertebrate larvae, 137 Embryonic membranes of mammals, 256 Embryological conditions of animals in the various phyla, 258 Animal classification, 260 Insects showing parthenogenesis, 333 Taenia, 152, 209, 262, 306‘, 307, 358 Taemlolhrips, 335 Talpa, 246, 268 Tarsius, 248, 249, 255, 268 Tealia, 23, 261 Teleosts, 76, 85, 86, 115, 116, 213, 234, 373, 376, 378 Telmatemlx, 334 Teloblastic mesoderm bands, 125 Telolecithal eggs, 24 Tenthredinidae, 349 Tenthredopsis, I 70 Terebratulina, 78, 263 Terrestrial life, 385 Tertiary membranes, 223 Test cells, 38, 39, 220 Tetrads, 13, 15 Tetranychus, 333 Tetrastichus, 337 Tettigidae, 334 Thalessema, 326, 341 Theca folliculi, 222 Thelytoky, 324 Thrimax, 336 Thysanoptera, 168, 335 Thysanura, 168, 170 Ticks, 333
443. 444
Time, 105, 260
Tomaria, 129, 181, I82
Torpedo, 81, 82, 114, 235, 239, 266 Total cleavage, 24
Total parthenpgenesis, 325 Tozopneustes, 17, 18, 263, 340, 376 Trachymedusae, 108
Trager, 206, 363, 364
Transplantation, 380
Trematodes, 90, 150, 296, 306, 330, 350 Trialeurodes, 329, 335
T7-ichocampus, 336
Trichogramma, 337
Trichomlscus, 328, 333
Trichoptera, 168
Triclads, 223
Triploid parthenogenesis, 325 Tripoctemus, 337
Triton, 131, 267, 376, 378, 380 Trochophore, 123, 127, 156, 157, 160, 176 Trochus, 56, 60, 123, 264
Trophoblast, 190, 191, 198, 200, 201, 203,
242, 243, 247, 248, 249, 252, 253, 254
Troynidozmla, 336
Tropiplwrus, 334
Trypanosyllvls, 263, 311, 312
Tubifex, 263, 314, 360
Tubularia, 141, 142, 143, 144, 260 Tubulipom, 262, 308
Tunicates, 316, 348; see also, Ascidians Tupaija, 200, 203, 204, 246, 268 Turbellarians, 102, 122, 147, 283 Turbot, 384
Turritopsis, 108, 109, 260 Typholomolge, 267, 348
Umbrella, 60, 264 Unequal coeloblastula, 92 Unequal stereoblastula, 93
SUBJECT INDEX
Ungulata, 200, 249
Unio, 60, 101, 264
Unipolar ingression, 102, 103 Urodeles, 274, 348, 373 Uterine milk, 250, 251
Variation, 292
Veliger, 160, 161
Vertebrate, embryonic membranes of, 230 Vertebrate asexual reproduction, 321 Vertebrate discoblastula, 97
Vertebrate gastrula, 110
Vertebrates, 93, 101, 353; cleavage of, 42,
76; germ-cell history of, 271
Vespa, 337
Vespoidea, 337
Vitelline membrane, 34, 210, 211 Vitellophages, 63
Viviparity, 238, 240
Wasp, 230, 324 Winter eggs, 23, 324
Xenos, 230, 334
Yellow crescent, 38, 41
Yolk epithelium, 120
Yolk plug, 119
Yolk pyramids, 65
Yolk sac, 225, 226, 230, 234, 243, 245 Yolk sac placenta, 239, 241
Yungia, 147,148, 149, 150,261
Zoaea, 163, 165
Zoantharia, 303
Zona pellucida, 195
Zona radiata, 195, 212
Zonary placenta, 248. 251, 252 zygote, 11