BGD Lecture - Face and Ear Development

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Introduction

Face animation.gif

Face Development Movie | MP4 version | Quicktime version

The face is the anatomical feature which is truly unique to each human, though the basis of its general development is identical for all humans and similar to that seem for other species. The face has a complex origin arising from a number of head structures and sensitive to a number of teratogens during critical periods of its development. The related structures of upper lip and palate significantly contribute to the majority of face abnormalities.

Head

The head and neck structures are more than just the face, and are derived from pharyngeal arches 1 - 6 with the face forming from arch 1 and 2 and the frontonasal prominence. Each arch contains similar Arch components derived from endoderm, mesoderm, neural crest and ectoderm.

Because the head contains many different structures also review notes on Special Senses), Respiratory, Integumentary (Teeth), Endocrine (thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, thymus) and Ultrasound- Cleft lip/palate.

Hearing

We use the sense of balance and hearing to position ourselves in space, sense our surrounding environment, and to communicate. Importantly hearing is linked into postnatal neurological development (milestones) involved with language and learning.

Portions of the ear appear very early in development as specialized region (otic placode) on the embryo surface that sinks into the mesenchyme to form a vesicle (otic vesicle = otocyst) that form the inner ear.


Lecture Links: 2013 Lecture printable version | 2013 Practical | 2012 | 2009 Lecture

Lecture Objectives

To introduce the developmental embryology of both the face and ear, and their associated abnormalities.

  1. To understand the formation and contribution of the pharyngeal arches to face and neck development.
  2. To know the main structures derived from components of the pharyngeal arches (groove, pouch and arch connective tissue).
  3. To know the 3 major parts (external, middle and inner) of hearing development and their embryonic origins.
  4. To briefly understand some abnormalities associated with face and hearing development.

Textbooks

Logo.png Hill, M.A. (2013) UNSW Embryology (13th ed.). Sydney:UNSW.
Head Links: Introduction | Medicine Lecture | Medicine Lab | Science Lecture | Lecture Movie | Science Lab | pharyngeal arch | Craniofacial Seminar | mouth | palate | tongue | placode | skull | neural crest | Head and Face Movies | head abnormalities | Category:Head
Historic Head Embryology  
1910 Skull | 1910 Skull Images | 1912 Nasolacrimal Duct | 1921 Human Brain Vascular | 1923 Head Subcutaneous Plexus | 1919 21mm Embryo Skull | 1920 Human Embryo Head Size | 1921 43 mm Fetal Skull | Historic Disclaimer
Hearing Links: Introduction | inner ear | middle ear | outer ear | balance | placode | hearing neural | Science Lecture | Lecture Movie | Medicine Lecture | Stage 22 | hearing abnormalities | hearing test | sensory | Student project

  Categories: Hearing | Outer Ear | Middle Ear | Inner Ear | Balance

Historic Embryology - Hearing 
Historic Embryology: 1880 Platypus cochlea | 1892 Vertebrate Ear | 1902 Development of Hearing | 1906 Membranous Labyrinth | 1910 Auditory Nerve | 1913 Tectorial Membrane | 1918 Human Embryo Otic Capsule | 1918 Cochlea | 1918 Grays Anatomy | 1922 Human Auricle | 1922 Otic Primordia | 1931 Internal Ear Scalae | 1932 Otic Capsule 1 | 1933 Otic Capsule 2 | 1936 Otic Capsule 3 | 1933 Endolymphatic Sac | 1934 Otic Vesicle | 1934 Membranous Labyrinth | 1934 External Ear | 1938 Stapes - 7 to 21 weeks | 1938 Stapes - Term to Adult | 1940 Stapes | 1942 Stapes - Embryo 6.7 to 50 mm | 1943 Stapes - Fetus 75 to 150 mm | 1946 Aquaductus cochleae and periotic (perilymphatic) duct | 1946 aquaeductus cochleae | 1948 Fissula ante fenestram | 1948 Stapes - Fetus 160 mm to term | 1959 Auditory Ossicles | 1963 Human Otocyst | Historic Disclaimer
The Developing Human, 9th edn.jpg Moore, K.L. & Persuad, T.V.N. (2011). The Developing Human: clinically oriented embryology (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders.

The following chapter links only work with a UNSW connection.

Larsen's human embryology 4th edn.jpg Schoenwolf, G.C., Bleyl, S.B., Brauer, P.R. and Francis-West, P.H. (2009). Larsen’s Human Embryology (4th ed.). New York; Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

The following chapter links only work with a UNSW connection.

Face and Head Movies

Face 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Face Development
Page | Play
Palate 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Palate (oral view)
Page | Play
Palate 002 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Palate (front view)
Page | Play
Tongue 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Tongue
Page | Play
Postnatal human mandible growth icon.jpg
 ‎‎Mandible Growth
Page | Play
Stage16-18 face 02.jpg
 ‎‎Face Stage 16-18
Page | Play
Stage15to22 head icon.jpg
 ‎‎Head Stage 15-22
Page | Play
Postnatal human mandible growth icon.jpg
 ‎‎Mandible Growth
Page | Play
Mouse cranial neural crest migration 01.jpg
 ‎‎Cranial Neural Crest
Page | Play
Mouse face microCT icon.jpg
 ‎‎Mouse Face
Page | Play

Week 3

Buccopharyngeal Membrane

These images of the Stage 11 embryo show the breakdown of the buccopharyngeal membrane.

The Pharynx

Head arches cartoon.jpg Stage13 B2 excerpt.gif Pharynx cartoon.jpg

The cavity within the pharyngeal arches forms the pharynx.

  • begins at the buccopharyngeal membrane (oral membrane), apposition of ectoderm with endoderm (no mesoderm between)
  • expands behind pharyngeal arches
  • narrows at glottis and bifurcation of gastrointestinal (oesophagus) and respiratory (trachea) systems
  • regions on roof, walls and floor have important contributions to endocrine in oral and neck regions
  • also contributes to tongue development

Week 4

Week 4 (stage 12)

Pharyngeal Arch Components

Pharyngeal arch structure cartoon.gif

Major features to identify for each: arch, pouch, groove and membrane. Contribute to the formation of head and neck and in the human appear at the 4th week. The first arch contributes the majority of upper and lower jaw structures.

Pharyngeal Arch Development

  • branchial arch (Greek. branchia = gill)
  • arch consists of all 3 trilaminar embryo layers
  • ectoderm- outside
  • mesoderm- core of mesenchyme
  • endoderm- inside

Neural Crest

neural crest migration
  • Mesenchyme invaded by neural crest generating connective tissue components
  • cartilage, bone, ligaments
  • arises from midbrain and hindbrain region
<mediaplayer width='410' height='340' image="http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/7/7d/Chicken-neural-crest-migration-01.jpg">File:Chicken-neural crest migration 01.mp4</mediaplayer>
Chicken-neural-crest-migration-01.jpg

Chicken embryo sequence shows the migration of DiI-labeled neural crest cells towards the branchial arches as the embryo. White rings indicate migration of individual cells. Each image represents 10 confocal sections separated by 10 microns.

Mouse cranial neural crest migration 01.jpg
 ‎‎Cranial Neural Crest
Page | Play

Arch Features

Stage13 B2 excerpt.gif
Pharyngeal arches Week 5 (Stage 14 sensory)

Each arch contains: artery, cartilage, nerve, muscular component

Arches and Phanynx Form the face, tongue, lips, jaws, palate, pharynx and neck cranial nerves, sense organ components, glands

  • Humans have 5 arches - 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 (Arch 5 does not form or regresses rapidly)
  • form in rostro-caudal sequence, Arch 1 to 6 (from week 4 onwards)
  • arch 1 and 2 appear at time of closure of cranial neuropore
  • Face - mainly arch 1 and 2
  • Neck components - arch 3 and 4 (arch 4 and 6 fuse)


  • arch
  • groove - (cleft) externally separates each arch (only first pair persist as external auditory meatus)
  • pouch - internally separates each arch (pockets out from the pharynx)
  • membrane - ectoderm and endoderm contact regions (only first pair persist as tympanic membrane )

Pharyngeal Arch 1 (Mandibular Arch) has 2 prominences

  • smaller upper- maxillary forms maxilla, zygomatic bone and squamous part of temporal
  • larger lower- mandibular, forms mandible

Pharyngeal Arch 2 (Hyoid Arch)

  • forms most of hyoid bone

Arch 3 and 4

  • neck structures

Arch Arteries

  • Arch 1 - mainly lost, form part of maxillary artery
  • Arch 2 - stapedial arteries
  • Arch 3 - common carotid arteries, internal carotid arteries
  • Arch 4 - left forms part of aortic arch, right forms part right subclavian artery
  • Arch 6 - left forms part of left pulmonary artery , right forms part of right pulmonary artery

placental vein -> liver -> heart -> truncus arteriosus -> aortic sac -> arch arteries -> dorsal aorta -> placental artery

Arch Cartilage

Meckel's cartilage, first pharyngeal arch
Pharyngeal arch cartilages
  • Arch 1 - Meckel's cartilage, horseshoe shaped
    • dorsal ends form malleus and incus
    • midpart forms ligaments (ant. malleus, sphenomandibular)
    • ventral part forms mandible template
  • Arch 2 - Reichert's cartilage
    • dorsal ends form stapes and Temporal bone styloid process
    • ventral part ossifies to form hyoid bone components
    • lesser cornu and superior body
  • Arch 3- forms greater cornu and inferior part of hyoid
  • Arch 4&6- form laryngeal cartilages, except epiglottis (from hypobranchial eminence)

Arch Muscle

  • Arch 1 - muscles of mastication, mylohyoid, tensor tympanic, ant. belly digastric
  • Arch 2 - muscles of facial expression, stapedius, stylohyoid, post. belly digastric
  • Arch 3 - stylopharyngeus
  • Arch 4&6 - crycothyroid, pharynx constrictors, larynx muscles, oesophagus (st. muscle)

Arch Nerve

  • Arch 1 - CN V trigeminal, caudal 2/3 maxillary and mandibular, cranial 1/3 sensory nerve of heaad and neck, mastication motor
  • Arch 2 - CN VII facial
  • Arch 3 - CN IX glossopharyngeal
  • Arch 4&6 - CN X vagus, arch 4- superior laryngeal, arch 6- recurrent laryngeal

Arch Pouches

  • Arch 1 - elongates to form tubotympanic recess, tympanic cavity, mastoid antrum, eustachian tube
  • Arch 2 - forms tonsillar sinus, mostly oblierated by palatine tonsil
  • Arch 3 - forms inferior parathyroid and thymus
  • Arch 4 - forms superior parathyroid, parafollicular cells of thyroid

Endocrine

Note endocrine development will be covered in detail in a later BGD lecture.

Thyroid Gland

  • not a pouch structure
  • first endocrine organ to develop day 24
  • from floor of pharynx
  • descends thyroglossal duct (which closes)
  • upper end at foramen cecum
Thyroid development

Anterior Pituitary

  • not a pouch structure
  • boundary epitheilal ectoderm in the roof of the pharynx
  • forms a pocket (Rathke's pouch) that comes into contact with the ectoderm of developing brain.
    • Rathke's pouch is named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 — 1860).
Pituitary

Face Development

Begins week 4 centered around stomodeum, external depression at oral membrane

5 initial primordia from neural crest mesenchyme (week 4)

  • single frontonasal prominence (FNP) - forms forehead, nose dorsum and apex
    • nasal placodes develop later bilateral, pushed medially
  • paired maxillary prominences - form upper cheek and upper lip
  • paired mandibular prominences - lower cheek, chin and lower lip

Week 4 onward | Week 6-7

Head/Skull

Fetal skull (week 12)
Adult skull
  • Cranium (Neurocranium) surrounds brain.
    • dermatocranium (membranous) - skull calvarial vault develops from intramembranous ossification
    • chondrocranium (cartilaginous) - skull base develops from endochondral ossification
    • 8 bones - occipital, 2 parietals, frontal, 2 temporals, sphenoidal, ethmoidal.
  • Face (Viscerocranium) development of the facial bones
    • 14 bones - 2 nasals, 2 maxillæ, 2 lacrimals, 2 zygomatics, 2 palatines, 2 inferior nasal conchæ, vomer, mandible.
Fetal head growth circumference

Calveria - bone has no cartilage (direct ossification of mesenchyme)

  • bones do not fuse, fibrous sutures
  1. allow distortion to pass through birth canal
  2. allow growth of the brain
  • 6 fontanelles - posterior closes at 3 months, anterior closes at 18 months
Links: Skull Development

Sensory Placodes

Stage 14 sensory placodes
  • During week 4 a series of thickened surface ectodermal patches form in pairs rostro-caudally in the head region.
  • Recent research suggests that all sensory placodes may arise from common panplacodal primordium origin around the neural plate, and then differentiate to eventually have different developmental fates.
  • These sensory placodes will later contribute key components of each of our special senses (vision, hearing and smell). Other species have a number of additional placodes which form other sensory structures (fish, lateral line receptor). Note that their initial postion on the developing head is significantly different to their final position in the future sensory system

Otic placode

  • Carnegie stage 12 still visible on embryo surface.
  • Carnegie stage 13/14 embryo (shown below) the otic placode has sunk from the surface ectoderm to form a hollow epithelial ball, the otocyst, which now lies beneath the surface surrounded by mesenchyme (mesoderm). The epithelia of this ball varies in thickness and has begun to distort, it will eventually form the inner ear membranous labyrinth.

Lens placode

lies on the surface, adjacent to the outpocketing of the nervous system (which will for the retina) and will form the lens.

Nasal placode

has 2 components (medial and lateral) and will form the nose olefactory epithelium.

Hearing Development

Adult hearing embryonic origins

External Ear

External ear stages 14-23 and adult (not to scale)
  • Auricle - Pharyngeal Arches 1 and 2 (ectoderm, mesoderm)
    • form from 6 hillocks (week 5) 3 on each of arch 1 and 2
  • External Auditory Meatus - Pharyngeal Arch 1 groove or cleft (ectoderm)
  • Tympanic Membrane - Pharyngeal Arch 1 membrane (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)

Middle Ear

Pharyngeal arch cartilages
  • Middle Ear Ossicles
    • Malleus and incus - Pharyngeal Arch 1 cartilage Neural crest (ectoderm)
    • Stapes - Pharyngeal Arch 2 cartilage Neural crest (ectoderm)
  • Middle Ear Muscles
    • Tensor tympani - Pharyngeal Arch 1 (mesoderm)
    • Stapedius - Pharyngeal Arch 2 (mesoderm)
  • Middle ear cavity - Pharyngeal Arch 1 pouch (endoderm)

Inner Ear

Otocyst (Week 5, Stage 13)
Inner Ear (Week 8, Stage 22)
  • Inner Ear Labyrinth
    • Cochlea - Otic vesicle - Otic placode (ectoderm)
    • Semicircular canals - Otic vesicle - Otic placode (ectoderm)
    • Saccule and utricle - Otic vesicle - Otic placode (ectoderm)
  • Cranial Nerve VIII
    • Auditory component - Otic vesicle and neural crest (ectoderm)
    • Vestibular component - Otic vesicle and neural crest (ectoderm)

Postnatal Changes

Eustacian tube angle.jpg Adult - longer (twice as long), wider and runs at approximately 45 degrees to the horizontal, tube is opened by two separate muscles (tensor palati and levator palati)


At birth - shorter (17-18 mm), narrower and runs almost horizontal, tube is opened by a single muscle (tensor palati muscle)

  • Auditory tube = Eustachian, otopharyngeal or pharyngotympanic tube.
  • Connects middle ear cavity to nasopharynx portion of pharynx
  • Ventilation - pressure equalization in the middle ear
  • Clearance - allow fluid drainage from the middle ear Tube is normally closed and opened by muscles


Links: Hearing Development

Head Growth

Fetal Head (12 weeks) showing bone and cartilage
  • continues postnatally - fontanelle allow head distortion on birth and early growth
  • bone plates remain unfused to allow growth, puberty growth of face


Palate

Embryonic

Primary palate, fusion in the human embryo between week 6-7 (stage 17 and 18, GA Week 8-9), from an epithelial seam to the mesenchymal bridge.

Stage17-18 Primary palate.gif

Fetal

Stage 22 image 061.jpg

Secondary palate, fusion in the human embryo in week 9 (GA week 11). This requires the early palatal shelves growth, elevation and fusion during the early embryonic period. The fusion event is to both each other and the primary palate. palatal shelf elevation | secondary palate

Tongue Development

Tongue1.png Tongue2.png Tongue3.png

  • Ectoderm of the first arch surrounding the stomodeum forms the epithelium lining the buccal cavity.
  • Also the salivary glands, enamel of the teeth, epithelium of the body of the tongue.
    • As the tongue develops "inside" the floor of the oral cavity, it is not readily visible in the external views of the embryonic (Carnegie) stages of development.
  • Contributions from all arches, which changes with time
  • begins as swelling rostral to foramen cecum, median tongue bud
    • Arch 1 - oral part of tongue (ant 3/2)
    • Arch 2 - initial contribution to surface is lost
    • Arch 3 - pharyngeal part of tongue (post 1/3)
    • Arch 4 - epiglottis and adjacent regions

tongue development animation

Tongue muscle

tongue muscle
  • Tongue muscles originate from the somites. Tongue muscles develop before masticatory muscles and is completed by birth.
  • Masticatory muscles originate from the somitomeres. These muscles develop late and are not complete even at birth.

Salivary Glands

  • epithelial buds in oral cavity (wk 6-7) extend into mesenchyme
  • parotid, submandibular, sublingual

Abnormalities

Cleft Lip and Palate

Cleft_palate.jpg Unilateral cleft palate.jpg Bilateral cleft palate.jpg
cleft palate unilateral cleft lip and palate bilateral cleft lip and palate
  • 300+ different abnormalities, different cleft forms and extent, upper lip and ant. maxilla, hard and soft palate

Victoria

The ten most frequently reported birth defects in Victoria between 2003-2004.

  1. Hypospadias
  2. Obstructive Defects of the Renal Pelvis or Obstructive Genitourinary Defects
  3. Ventricular Septal Defect
  4. Congenital Dislocated Hip
  5. Trisomy 21 or Down syndrome
  6. Hydrocephalus
  7. Cleft Palate
  8. Trisomy 18 or Edward Syndrome - multiple abnormalities of the heart, diaphragm, lungs, kidneys, ureters and palate 86% discontinued.
  9. Renal Agenesis/Dysgenesis - reduction in neonatal death and stillbirth since 1993 may be due to the more severe cases being identified in utero and being represented amongst the increased proportion of terminations (approximately 31%).
  10. Cleft Lip and Palate - occur with another defect in 33.7% of cases.


USA Selected Abnormalities (CDC National estimates for 21 selected major birth defects 2004–2006)  
Birth Defects Cases per Births (1 in ...) Estimated Annual Number of Cases
anencephaly 4,859 859
spina bifida without anencephaly 2,858 1,460
encephalocele 12,235 341
Anophthalmia/microphthalmia 5,349 780
patent ductus arteriosus‎/common truncus 13,876 301
transposition of the great vessels 3,333 1,252
Tetralogy of Fallot 2,518 1,657
atrial septal defects/ventricular septal defects 2,122 1,966
hypoplastic left heart 4,344 960
cleft palate without cleft lip 1,574 2,651
cleft lip with and without cleft palate 940 4,437
Esophageal atresia/tracheoesophageal fistula 4,608 905
Rectal and large intestinal atresia/stenosis 2,138 1,952
Reduction deformity, upper limbs 2,869 1,454
Reduction deformity, lower limbs 5,949 701
gastroschisis 2,229 1,871
omphalocele 5,386 775
Diaphragmatic hernia 3,836 1,088
Trisomy 13 7,906 528
Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) 691 6,037
Trisomy 18 3,762 1,109
Links: Human Abnormal Development | CDC Birth Defects - Data & Statistics | USA Statistics | Victoria 2004 | USA 2006 | Europe 2010

Cleft Palate

  • Cleft palate has the International Classification of Diseases code 749.0.
  • In Australia the national rate (1982-1992) for this abnormalitity in births was 4.8 - 6/10,000 births, which represented 1,530 infants 5.5% were stillborn and 11.5% liveborn died during neonatal period and slightly more common in twin births than singleton.

Cleft Lip

  • The International Classification of Diseases code 749.1 for isolated cleft lip and 749.2 for cleft lip with cleft palate.
  • In Australia the national rate (1982-1992) for this abnormalitity was 8.1 - 9.9 /10,000 births. Of 2,465 infants 6.2% were stillborn and 7.8% liveborn died during neonatal period and the rate was similar in singleton and twin births.
Links: Palate Development

First Arch Syndrome

  • There are 2 major types of associated first arch syndromes, Treacher Collins (Mandibulofacial dysostosis) and Pierre Robin (Pierre Robin complex or sequence), both result in extensive facial abnormalites.

Treacher Collins Syndrome

Pierre Robin Syndrome

  • Hypoplasia of the mandible, cleft palate, eye and ear defects.
  • Initial defect is small mandible (micrognathia) resulting in posterior displacement of tongue and a bilateral cleft palate.

DiGeorge Syndrome

  • absence of thymus and parathyroid glands, 3rd and 4th pouch do not form
  • disturbance of cervical neural crest migration

Cysts

  • Many different types

Facial Clefts

    • extremely rare
  • Holoprosencephaly
    • shh abnormality

Maternal Effects

  • Retinoic Acid - present in skin ointments
  • 1988 associated with facial developmental abnormalities

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

FASface.jpg

Due to alcohol in early development (week 3+) leading to both facial and neurological abnormalities

  • lowered ears, small face, mild+ retardation
  • Microcephaly - leads to small head circumference
  • Short Palpebral fissure - opening of eye
  • Epicanthal folds - fold of skin at inside of corner of eye
  • Flat midface
  • Low nasal bridge
  • Indistinct Philtrum - vertical grooves between nose and mouth
  • Thin upper lip
  • Micrognathia - small jaw

Exposure of embryos in vitro to ethanol simulates premature differentiation of prechondrogenic mesenchyme of the facial primordia (1999)

Links: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Table - Structures derived from Arches

Arch Nerve Skeletal Structures Muscles Ligaments
1 (maxillary/mandibular) trigeminal (V) mandible, maxilla, malleus, incus   ant lig of malleus, sphenomandibular ligament
2 (hyoid) facial (VII) stapes, styloid process, lesser cornu of hyoid, upper part of body of hyoid bone   stylohyoid ligament
3 glossopharyngeal (IX) greater cornu of hyoid, lower part of body of hyoid bone  
4 & 6 superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal branch of vagus (X) thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneform cartilages  

Structures derived from Arches

Arch Nerve Skeletal Structures Muscles Ligaments
1 (maxillary/mandibular) trigeminal (V) mandible, maxilla, malleus, incus   ant lig of malleus, sphenomandibular ligament
2 (hyoid) facial (VII) stapes, styloid process, lesser cornu of hyoid, upper part of body of hyoid bone   stylohyoid ligament
3 glossopharyngeal (IX) greater cornu of hyoid, lower part of body of hyoid bone  
4 & 6 superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal branch of vagus (X) thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneform cartilages  


Structures derived from Pouches

Each pouch is lined with endoderm and generates specific structures.


POUCH
Overall Structure Specific Structures
1
tubotympanic recess tympanic membrane, tympanic cavity, mastoid antrum, auditory tube
2
intratonsillar cleft crypts of palatine tonsil, lymphatic nodules of palatine tonsil
3
inferior parathyroid gland, thymus gland
4
superior parathyroid gland, ultimobranchial body
5
becomes part of 4th pouch

Structures derived from Grooves

Only the first groove differentiates into an adult structure and forms part of the external acoustic meatus.

Structures derived from Membranes

At the bottom of each groove lies the membrane which is formed from the contact region of ectodermal groove and endodermal pouch. Only the first membrane differentiates into an adult structure and forms the tympanic membrane.

References

Online Textbooks

Search


External Links

Embryo Images Unit: Embryo Images Online | Craniofacial Development | Cell Populations | Pharyngeal Arches | Tongue | Nose and Upper Lip | Palate Development

Research Labs: tzahor lab

Terms

palate

The roof of the mouth (oral cavity) a structure which separates the oral from the nasal cavity. Develops as two lateral palatal shelves which grow and fuse in the midline. Initally a primary palate forms with fusion of the maxillary processes with the nasal processes in early face formation. Later the secondary palate forms the anterior hard palate which will ossify and separate the oral and nasal cavities. The posterior part of the palate is called the soft palate (velum, muscular palate) and contains no bone. Abnormalities of palatal shelf fusion can lead to cleft palate. (More? Palate Development | Head | Head Abnormalities)

palatogenesis

The process of palate formation, divided into primary and secondary palate development. (More? Palate Development | Head | Head Abnormalities)

pharyngeal arch

(branchial arch, Greek, branchial = gill) These are a series of externally visible anterior tissue bands lying under the early brain that give rise to the structures of the head and neck. In humans, five arches form (1,2,3,4 and 6) but only four are externally visible on the embryo. Each arch has initially identical structures: an internal endodermal pouch, a mesenchymal (mesoderm and neural crest) core, a membrane (endoderm and ectoderm) and external cleft (ectoderm). Each arch mesenchymal core also contains similar components: blood vessel, nerve, muscular, cartilage. Each arch though initially formed from similar components will differentiate to form different head and neck structures. (More? | Head Development | Endocrine | Neural Crest)

pharyngeal arch artery

Each early developing pharyngeal arch contains a lateral pair of arteries arising from the aortic sac, above the heart, and running into the dorsal aorta. later in development these arch arteries are extensively remodelled to form specific components of the vascular system. Pharyngeal Arch 1 arteries are mainly lost and forms part of maxillary artery. Pharyngeal Arch 2 arteries remains to form the stapedial arteries. Pharyngeal Arch 3 arteries forms the common carotid arteries, internal carotid arteries in the neck. Pharyngeal Arch 4 arteries will form part of aortic arch (left arch artery) and part right subclavian artery (right arch artery) Pharyngeal Arch 6 arteries form part of left pulmonary artery (left arch artery) and part of right pulmonary artery (right arch artery). (More? | Head Development | Cardiovascular)

pharyngeal arch cartilage

Each early developing pharyngeal arch contains a horseshoe shaped band of cartilage that acts as a template and contributes to the development of head and neck bony and cartilagenous features, including the middle ear bones. Pharyngeal Arch 1 cartilage (Meckel’s cartilage) dorsal ends form malleus and incus midpart forms ligaments (ant. malleus, sphenomandibular) ventral part forms mandible template. Pharyngeal Arch 2 cartilage (Reichert’s cartilage) dorsal ends form stapes and Temporal bone styloid process, ventral part ossifies to form hyoid bone components, lesser cornu and superior body. Pharyngeal Arch 3 cartilage forms hyoid components, greater cornu and inferior part of hyoid. Pharyngeal Arch 4 and 6 cartilage forms laryngeal cartilages except epiglottis (from hypobranchial eminence). (More? Head Development | Middle Ear)

pharyngeal arch nerve

Each early developing pharyngeal arch contains the developing cranial nerves, as a pair, within the arch mesenchyme. Each cranial nerve is numbered (roman numeral) in rostrocaudal sequence and also has a specific name. The cranial nerve within each arch often relates to the other structures formed from taht arch. Pharyngeal Arch 1 contains the trigeminal nerve (CN V, cranial nerve 5). Pharyngeal Arch 2 contains the facial nerve (CN VII, cranial nerve 7). Pharyngeal Arch 3 contains the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX, cranial nerve 9) Pharyngeal Arch 4 and 6 contains the Vagus (CN X cranial nerve 10), forming the adult superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal branches. (More? | Head Development | Neural | Neural Crest)

pharyngeal arch pouch

An out-pocketing of the endoderm lined pharynx occurring between each developing pharyngeal arch. Each of the pharyngeal arch pouches contributes different components of the head and neck, either cavities or endocrine tissues. Pharyngeal Arch 1 pouch elongates to form tubotympanic recess tympanic cavity, mastoid antrum and auditory tube (Eustachian tube). Pharyngeal Arch 2 pouch forms the tonsillar sinus and is later mostly oblierated by palatine tonsil. Pharyngeal Arch 3 pouch forms the inferior parathyroid and thymus. Pharyngeal Arch 4 pouch forms the superior parathyroid, parafollicular cells of Thyroid. (More? Middle Ear | Thyroid | Parathyroid | Thymus‎ | Endocrine | Head Development

pharyngotympanic tube

(auditory tube, eustachian tube, otopharyngeal tube) A narrow canal connecting the middle ear space to the back of the oral cavity. The tube allows ventilation, protection and clearance for the middle ear cavity. Ventilation is the pressure equalization in the middle ear. Clearance is to allow fluid drainage from the middle ear. Embryonic origin is from the first pharyngeal pouch. In development, the canal is initially both horizontal, short and very narrow leading to poor drainage and easy blockage. (More? Middle Ear | Hearing | Hearing Abnormalities)

pharynx

(throat) Forms the initial segment of the upper respiratory tract divided anatomically into three regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx (hypopharynx). Anatomically extends from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. (More? Respiratory System Development)

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Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, March 19) Embryology BGD Lecture - Face and Ear Development. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/BGD_Lecture_-_Face_and_Ear_Development

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© Dr Mark Hill 2024, UNSW Embryology ISBN: 978 0 7334 2609 4 - UNSW CRICOS Provider Code No. 00098G