Testis Development: Difference between revisions

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These cells produce the male testicular androgens and have a role during life prenatally (fetal) and postnatally during puberty onward.
These cells produce the male testicular androgens and have a role during life prenatally (fetal) and postnatally during puberty onward.


Potential origin of {{Leydig cells}} - Neural Crest Cells
Potential origin of {{Leydig cells}}{{#pmid:219339813|PMID219339813}} - {{neural crest}}, coelomic epithelium (mesothelium), mesonephros or unknown.




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===Fetal Leydig Cells===
===Fetal Leydig Cells===
 
Fetal Leydig Cells (FLCs) have a hormonal role in male genitalia differentiation and are lost postnatally. These cells arise approximately at 6 weeks (human) and 12.5 dpc (mouse) and there appears to be differences in hormonal sensitivity between the species. Their initial differentiation requires both luteinizing hormone (LH) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and therefore normal {{pituitary}} development.
Have a hormonal role in male genitalia differentiation and are lost postnatally. These cells arise approximately at 6 weeks (human) and 12.5 dpc (mouse) and there appears to be differences in hormonal sensitivity between the species. Their initial differentiation requires both luteinizing hormone (LH) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and therefore normal {{pituitary}} development.


Activin A - acts upon Sertoli cells to promote their embryonic proliferation{{#pmid:20498064|PMID20498064}}
Activin A - acts upon Sertoli cells to promote their embryonic proliferation{{#pmid:20498064|PMID20498064}}
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===Adult Leydig Cells===
===Adult Leydig Cells===


Have a hormonal role in puberty, secondary sex characteristics and sexual maturation. Their initial differentiation from peritubular mesenchymal cells does not require gonadotropin, but development and function are dependent upon luteinizing hormone (LH).  
Adult Leydig cells (ALCs) have a hormonal role in puberty, secondary sex characteristics and sexual maturation. Their initial differentiation from peritubular mesenchymal cells does not require gonadotropin, but development and function are dependent upon luteinizing hormone (LH).  


The cells differentiate with three discrete stages (newly formed, immature, mature) leading to a decrease in proliferation and increasing testosterone biosynthetic capacity. Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) stimulates proliferation of immature cells and promotes their maturation. Testosterone and estrogen inhibit the process of precursor cell differentiation and may be responsible for the cessation of proliferation in the adult Leydig cells.
The cells differentiate with three discrete stages (newly formed, immature, mature) leading to a decrease in proliferation and increasing testosterone biosynthetic capacity. Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) stimulates proliferation of immature cells and promotes their maturation. Testosterone and estrogen inhibit the process of precursor cell differentiation and may be responsible for the cessation of proliferation in the adult Leydig cells.

Revision as of 23:42, 30 May 2018

Embryology - 19 Mar 2024    Facebook link Pinterest link Twitter link  Expand to Translate  
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Introduction

Historic testis drawing

The male gonad is the testis (pl, testes).

The initial difference in male and female gonad development are dependent on testis-determining factor (TDF) the protein product of the Y chromosome SRY gene. Recent studies have indicated that additional factors may also be required for full differentiation. The seminiferous tubules are considered the parenchyma of the testis. Within the developing testis the three main differentiating cell types are: gamete forming cells (spermatogonia), support cells (Sertoli cells) and hormone secreting cells (Leydig or interstitial cells).


Postnatally in humans, at 2 months of age, primordial germ cells (gonocytes) are replaced by adult dark (Ad) and pale (Ap) spermatogonia that make up the spermatogonial stem cell (SSC) population that at puberty will commence differentiation into spermatozoa.

Testis - Seminiferous Tubule
Pre-puberty Post-puberty
Testis histology 006.jpg Testis histology 011.jpg
Cross-sectional view of the seminiferous tubule histology before and after puberty.


Genital Links: genital | Lecture - Medicine | Lecture - Science | Lecture Movie | Medicine - Practical | primordial germ cell | meiosis | endocrine gonad‎ | Genital Movies | genital abnormalities | Assisted Reproductive Technology | puberty | Category:Genital
Female | X | X inactivation | ovary | corpus luteum | oocyte | uterus | vagina | reproductive cycles | menstrual cycle | Category:Female
Male | Y | SRY | testis | spermatozoa | ductus deferens | penis | prostate | Category:Male
Historic Embryology - Genital 
General: 1901 Urinogenital Tract | 1902 The Uro-Genital System | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1921 Urogenital Development | 1921 External Genital | 1942 Sex Cords | 1953 Germ Cells | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer
Female: 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Hymen | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1914 Female | 1921 External Genital | 1927 Female Foetus 15 cm | 1927 Vagina | 1932 Postnatal Ovary
Male: 1887-88 Testis | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Leydig Cells | 1906 Testis vascular | 1909 Prostate | 1912 Prostate | 1914 External Genitalia | 1915 Cowper’s and Bartholin’s Glands | 1920 Wolffian tubules | 1935 Prepuce | 1935 Wolffian Duct | 1942 Sex Cords | 1943 Testes Descent | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer

Some Recent Findings

Gadd45g and Sex Determination Model[1]
  • Sertoli Cell Wt1 Regulates Peritubular Myoid Cell and Fetal Leydig Cell Differentiation during Fetal Testis Development[2] "Sertoli cells play a significant role in regulating fetal testis compartmentalization to generate testis cords and interstitium during development. The Sertoli cell Wilms' tumor 1 (Wt1) gene, which encodes ~24 zinc finger-containing transcription factors, is known to play a crucial role in fetal testis cord assembly and maintenance. ... In summary, Wt1 regulates the development of FLC and interstitial progenitor cell lineages through Notch signaling, and it also plays a role in PMC development. Collectively, these effects confer fetal testis compartmentalization. See also - Sertoli cells control peritubular myoid cell fate and support adult Leydig cell development in the prepubertal testis PMID 24803659
  • R-spondin 1/dickkopf-1/beta-catenin machinery is involved in testicular embryonic angiogenesis[3] "Testicular vasculogenesis is one of the key processes regulating male gonad morphogenesis. The knowledge of the molecular cues underlining this phenomenon is one of today's most challenging issues and could represent a major contribution toward a better understanding of the onset of testicular morphogenetic disorders. R-spondin 1 has been clearly established as a candidate for mammalian ovary determination. Conversely, very little information is available on the expression and role of R-spondin 1 during testicular morphogenesis. This study aims to clarify the distribution pattern of R-spondin 1 and other partners of its machinery during the entire period of testicular morphogenesis and to indicate the role of this system in testicular development. Our whole mount immunofluorescence results clearly demonstrate that R-spondin 1 is always detectable in the testicular coelomic partition, where testicular vasculature is organized, while Dickkopf-1 is never detectable in this area. Moreover, organ culture experiments of embryonic male UGRs demonstrated that Dickkopf-1 acted as an inhibitor of testis vasculature formation. Consistent with this observation, real-time PCR analyses demonstrated that DKK1 is able to slightly but significantly decrease the expression level of the endothelial marker Pecam1."
  • Gadd45g is essential for primary sex determination, male fertility and testis development[1] "In humans and most mammals, differentiation of the embryonic gonad into ovaries or testes is controlled by the Y-linked gene SRY. Here we show a role for the Gadd45g protein in this primary sex differentiation. ...The molecular cause of the sex reversal was the failure of Gadd45g(-/-) XY gonads to achieve the SRY expression threshold necessary for testes differentiation, resulting in ovary and Müllerian duct development. These results identify Gadd45g as a candidate gene for male infertility and 46,XY sex reversal in humans."
More recent papers  
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Older papers  
  • Prenatal testosterone and dihydrotestosterone exposure disrupts ovine testes development [4] "Androgens play important roles during the first trimester of intrauterine life, coinciding with genital tract differentiation, during virilization and maintenance of secondary male characteristics and during initiation of spermatogenesis. ... Findings from this study demonstrate that exposure to excess testosterone/5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) during male fetal sexual differentiation have differential effects on post-pubertal testicular size, seminiferous tubule size and function, sperm motility, and testosterone concentrations." sheep
  • Oestrogen blocks the nuclear entry of SOX9 in the developing gonad of a marsupial mammal.[5] "We have uncovered a mechanism by which oestrogen can regulate gonadal development through the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of SOX9. This may represent an underlying ancestral mechanism by which oestrogen promotes ovarian development in the gonads of nonmammalian vertebrates. Furthermore, oestrogen may retain this function in adult female mammals to maintain granulosa cell fate in the differentiated ovary by suppressing nuclear translocation of the SOX9 protein."
  • The evolutionary history of testicular externalization and the origin of the scrotum[6] "We mapped four character states reflecting the position of testes and presence of scrotum onto recent mammalian phylogeny. Our results are interpreted as follows: as to the presence of testicondy in Monotremata and most of Atlantogenata, which represent the basal group of all eutherians, we argue that primary testicondy represents a plesiomorphic condition for Eutheria as well as for all mammals. This is in opposition to the previous hypothesis of Werdelin and Nilsonne that the scrotum may have evolved before the origin of mammals and then repeatedly disappeared in many groups including monotremes. We suggest that the scrotum evolved at least twice during the evolutionary history of mammals, within Marsupialia and Boreoeutheria, and has subsequently been lost by many groups; this trend is especially strong in Laurasiatheria. We suggest that the recent diversity in testicular position within mammals is the result of multiple selection pressures stemming from the need to provide conditions suitable for sperm development and storage, or to protect the male gonads from excessive physical and physiological disturbance."
  • FGF signaling directs a center-to-pole expansion of tubulogenesis in mouse testis differentiation.[7] "These observations imply that center-to-pole FGF9 diffusion directs a poleward expansion of testiculogenic programs along the anteroposterior axis of developing XY gonads."

Movies

Gonad-icon.jpg
 ‎‎Testis
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Male external 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Male External
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Testis 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Testis Descent
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Gonad blood 01 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Gonad Vascular
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Links: Movies

Development Overview

Male urogenital development (stage 22)
Fetal gonad retinoid receptor expression[8]

Sex Determination

  • Humans (week 5-6)
  • Germ cells migrate into gonadal ridge
  • Gonads (male/female) identical at this stage, Indifferent

Gonad Development

  • dependent on sex chromosome
  • Y testes
  • No Y ovary

SRY

SRY protein (Testes determining factor, TDF) binds DNA Transcription factor, Bends DNA 70-80 degrees

Internal Genital Organs

  • All embryos form paired
  • Mesonephric duct, see kidney development
  • Paramesonephric duct, Humans 7th week Invagination of coelomic epithelium Cord grows and terminates on urogenital sinus
  • Male Gonad (testes) secretes Mullerian duct inhibitory factor (MDIF) which causes regression of paramesonephric duct
  • Male Gonad (testes) secretes Testosterone which retains mesonephric duct

External Genital Organs

  • All embryos initially same (indifferent)
  • Testosterone differentiates male

Week 8

Carnegie stage 22

Stage 22 image 302.jpg Stage 22 image 301.jpg

Developing testis is shown to the centre right. These images show the position, size and histological development of the testis in week 8 of human development (Carnegie stage 22, last embryonic week).

Human Stage 22: Testis - labeled overview | Testis - unlabeled overview | Testis - unlabeled detail | Testis - labeled detail | testis | Carnegie stage 22 | Movie - Urogenital stage 22

Sertoli Cells

Adult Seminiferous tubule showing spermatozoa developmental stages
Adult Seminiferous tubule showing spermatozoa developmental stages
Gonadal supporting cell development
Gonadal supporting cell development

The sertoli cell cells provide support for spermatozoa development within the seminiferous tubule. In the mouse, these cells are derived from the coelomic epithelium along with other testis somatic cells.[9] Their differentiation is regulated by the presence of a Y chromosome and in turn regulates Leydig cell differentiation. Sertoli cells direct testis morphogenesis, organizing testis cord formation, establishing testis vasculature and inducing differentiation of peritubular myoid cells and fetal Leydig cells. At puberty the immature Sertoli cells cease to proliferate and differentiate.

Sertoli cell functions include:

  • regulation of spermatogenesis through endocrine FSH and testosterone
  • regulation of the intratubular and intercellular environment adluminal to the tight junctional complexes
    • meiotic and post-meiotic germ cells are sequestered by Sertoli-Sertoli junctional complexes
  • generate adluminal compartment isolated from both serum and lymph
  • attachment of germ cells through unique intermediate filament (desmosome-like junctions) and microfilament (actin- ectoplasmic specializations, ESs) junctions[10]
    • to prevent premature sloughing of immature germ cells from the seminiferous epithelium
    • desmosome-like junctions are initially present (up to step 8 spermatids)
    • ectoplasmic specializations then replace this junction (in step 8 spermatids)

(see also review[11])

Ultrastructural description of human Sertoli cells[12]

  • 7 weeks - first morphologically recognised in testicular cords, organised as primordial germ cells surrounded by pre-Sertoli cells.
  • 7 to 8 weeks - basal lamina of the cords becomes distinguishable, pre-Sertoli cells the rough endoplasmic reticulum develops.
  • 14 to 20 weeks - pre-Sertoli cells maintain their general morphology whereas the most significant change is the maximum development of Leydig cells.

Molecular factors:

  • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) -> Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4)
  • Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) - zinc finger transcription factor, terminal differentiation of epithelial cells.
  • Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
  • Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGFbeta)

Leydig Cells

Seminiferous tubule cross-section and supporting cells

Interstitial or Leydig cell, named after German zoologist Franz von Leydig (1821 - 1908) who first histologically described them in 1850.[13] Their initial development appears to be influenced by Sertoli cell differentiation.

These cells produce the male testicular androgens and have a role during life prenatally (fetal) and postnatally during puberty onward.

Potential origin of Leydig cellPubmedParser error: The PubmedParser extension received invalid XML data. () - neural crest, coelomic epithelium (mesothelium), mesonephros or unknown.


A recent study[14] has looked at the postnatal development of Lydia cells from stem cells:

  • early postnatal testis - interstitial compartment undifferentiated mesenchymal-like stem cells
  • adult testis - peritubular and perivascular locations quiescent stem cells (nestin, PDGFRα, COUP-TFII, CD51 and CD90)

Factors regulating division

  • proliferation - DHH (Desert hedgehog), FGF2, PDGFBB, activin and PDGFAA
  • suppression of proliferation - TGFβ, androgen and PKA signaling.

Fetal Leydig Cells

Fetal Leydig Cells (FLCs) have a hormonal role in male genitalia differentiation and are lost postnatally. These cells arise approximately at 6 weeks (human) and 12.5 dpc (mouse) and there appears to be differences in hormonal sensitivity between the species. Their initial differentiation requires both luteinizing hormone (LH) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and therefore normal pituitary development.

Activin A - acts upon Sertoli cells to promote their embryonic proliferation[15]

(More? pituitary)

Adult Leydig Cells

Adult Leydig cells (ALCs) have a hormonal role in puberty, secondary sex characteristics and sexual maturation. Their initial differentiation from peritubular mesenchymal cells does not require gonadotropin, but development and function are dependent upon luteinizing hormone (LH).

The cells differentiate with three discrete stages (newly formed, immature, mature) leading to a decrease in proliferation and increasing testosterone biosynthetic capacity. Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) stimulates proliferation of immature cells and promotes their maturation. Testosterone and estrogen inhibit the process of precursor cell differentiation and may be responsible for the cessation of proliferation in the adult Leydig cells.

Leydig Cell Electron Micrographs
Leydig cell PMID13693345 EM02.jpg Leydig cell PMID13693345 EM03.jpg
Low power EM High power EM

EM images above from historic study of the opossum testis.[16]

Peritubular Myoid Cells

These cells surround the seminiferous tubules and express androgen receptors from fetal life through to adulthood.

Epididymis

Adult Epididymis Histology
Mouse postnatal epididymis development[17]

Both the ductus epididymis and ductus deferens differentiate from the mesonephric duct (Wollfian duct) elongation (cell proliferation). In the case of the epididymis, elongation also is associated with extensive coiling, the adult human epididymis about 6 metres in length (mouse 1m, rat 3m). Embryonic growth is regulated by androgens, members of the PCP pathway, and inhibin beta A. While postnatally androgens and other growth factors may have roles in final maturation. (see review[18]) The ductus epididymis is lined by a very tall pseudostratified columnar epithelium, consisting of principal cells with long stereo cilia.

Following puberty, the epididymis is involved in maturation of the spermatozoa released from the seminiferous tubules and their storage.

  • middle segment - site of final functional maturation of the spermatozoa.
  • terminal segment - site of storage of the mature spermatozoa.

Anatomically the adult epididymis consists of 3 regions:

  • body or central portion.
  • head (globus major) upper enlarged extremity.
  • tail (globus minor) lower pointed extremity, continuous with the ductus deferens (vas deferens).

The head is intimately connected with the upper end of the testis by means of the efferent ductules of the gland; the tail is connected with the lower end by cellular tissue, and a reflection of the tunica vaginalis (tunica vaginalis propria testis) the serous covering of the testis.

The lateral surface, head and tail of the epididymis are free and covered by the serous membrane; the body is also completely invested by it, excepting along its posterior border; while between the body and the testis is a pouch, named the sinus of the epididymis (digital fossa). The epididymis is connected to the back of the testis by a fold of the serous membrane.

Testis Descent

The research data on human testis descent timing has been highly variable. Testis descent is thought to have 2 phases:

  1. transabdominal descent - dependent on insulin-like hormone 3 (INSL3).
  2. inguinoscrotal descent - dependent on androgens.

Other suggested factors with a role in descent include: gonadotropin-releasing hormone, fibroblast growth factors, Müllerian inhibiting substance, and inhibin B[19]

The regulation of testis descent is still being investigated and several different factors have been identified that may have roles in descent. The first stage of testicular descent occurs 10–15 weeks of gestation with the testes moving to the inguinal region. The second inguino-scrotal phase occurs between 25-35 weeks.[20]

The gubernaculum (gubernaculum Hunteri) is the caudal inguinoscrotal ligament that connects the testis to the lower abdomen. The cranial suspensory ligament (mesonephric ligament) is the cranial ligament that connects the tesitis to the posterior abdominal wall.

  • Insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3, relaxin-like factor) from fetal leydig cells acting through its receptor (Rxfp2) and BMP and WNT signaling pathways to promote testis descent.
  • Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) from genitofemoral nerve suggested to mediate the inguinoscrotal testicular descent.
  • Epidermal growth factor (EGF) may promote by activating the androgen responsive systems.


Testis-descent start.jpg Testis-descent end.jpg
Testis 001 icon.jpg
 ‎‎Testis Descent
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Before Descent End of Descent Testis Descent Movie



Links: OMIM - INSL3

Cryptorchidism

Cryptorchidism
Newborn - cryptorchidism normal birthweight[21]

The external location of the testes in the scrotum acts as a local thermo-regulator and provides a temperature environment below that of the general body temperature.[22] This thermal function is essential for normal spermatogenesis and cryptorchidism therefore affects fertility.

  • abnormality of either unilateral or bilateral testicular descent, occurring in up to 30% premature and 3-4% term males.
  • Descent may complete postnatally in the first year, failure to descend can result in sterility.

Testis descent is thought to have 2 phases:

  1. transabdominal descent - dependent on insulin-like hormone 3 (INSL3).
  2. inguinoscrotal descent - dependent on androgens.

Management of cryptorchidism in children: guidelines.[23] "Cryptorchidism is best diagnosed clinically, and treated by surgical orchiopexy at age 6-12 months, without a routine biopsy. If no testis is palpable, or if other signs of hypovirilisation such as hypospadias are present, the chromosomal sex and hormonal status must be assessed. Laparoscopy is the best way of diagnosing and managing intra-abdominal testes."

Anorchia

Clinical term for (embryonic testicular regression, vanishing testis syndrome) the absence of testes in a 46,XY individual with a male phenotype. Rare abnormality with an incidence of about 1 in 20,000 male births, and occurs more frequently with cryptorchidism (1 in 177 cases).

A recent study has identified undetectable plasma concentrations of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and inhibin B and an elevated plasma FSH, together with 46,XY complement are sufficient for diagnosis of anorchia. Genetic analysis showed that NR5A1 and other genes (INSL3, SRY, LGR8 , MAMLD1) implicated in gonadal development and testicle descent were also not mutated.[24]

Puberty

Male testosterone and AMH level graph.jpg

Human Male Testosterone and Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH) relative levels[25]

  • AMH production by Sertoli cells .
  • Testosterone production by Leydig cells.

In humans at puberty, hormonal and morphological changes occur within the gonad and other systems (secondary sex characteristics). Within the testis the immature Sertoli cells cease to proliferate and differentiate. Spermatogonium proliferate and spermatogenesis begins, and it takes about 70 days for cells to mature from the diploid spermatogonium to a primary spermatocyte. This maturation occurs in waves along the seminiferous tubules.

Links: Puberty Development

orchidometer
orchidometer

Orchidometer

(orchiometer) A simple clinical instrument used to measure postnatal testis volume using 12 beads ranging from 1 to 25 millilitres. Developed by Dr. Andrea Prader (1919 – 2001) an endocrinologist who also discovered the Prader-Willi syndrome and developed the Prader scale, a second clinical classification used to describe CAH virilization of female genitalia.


Blood-Testis Barrier

Within the testis seminiferous tubules the Sertoli cells located near the basement membrane act as an initial cellular barrier with many functions, but often described as forming a "blood-testis barrier". (see review[26]

Functions:

  • prevent substances reaching the developing spermatozoa (through drug transporters)
  • establish a basal and adluminal (apical) compartment (specialized microenvironment)
  • provide an immunological privilege status of the testis (anti-sperm antibodies are not developed)

Histology

Testis Histology Links: Testis Development | Spermatozoa Development | Histology

Human (young): overview labeled | overview unlabeled | convoluted seminiferous tubules x10 | x40 | x40 | tunica albuginea x20
Human (adult): overview x2 | convoluted seminiferous tubules labeled | x10 | x20 | x40 | x40 | epididymis ductulus efferens | ductus epididymidis | epithelium | overview x4 | x10 | x20 | x40 | ductus deferens labeled overview | epithelium | overview x2 | x10 | x40
Human spermatozoa: x20 | x40 | x100
Human Stage 22: Testis - labeled overview | Testis - unlabeled overview | Testis - unlabeled detail | Testis - labeled detail | testis | Carnegie stage 22 | Movie - Urogenital stage 22
Rabbit: convoluted seminiferous tubules x20 | x100
Mouse: postnatal epididymis | 14 days postnatal | 33 days postnatal | 45 days postnatal | 2 months postnatal
Spermatozoa Development (expand to see terms)  

Spermatozoa Development

Note there are additional glossaries associated with genital, spermatozoa, oocyte and renal.

Spermatozoon
  • acroplaxome - structure forms the acrosome plate with intermediate filament bundles of the marginal ring at the leading edge of the acrosome. The sub-acrosomal layer located in the developing spermatozoa head perinuclear region, located between the inner acrosomal membrane and the nuclear envelope. The other part of the perinuclear region is the post-acrosomal sheath (PAS) at the post-acrosomal region.
  • acrosome - Cap-shaped cellular structure formed from the golgi apparatus and contains enzymes to dissolve the oocyte (egg) zona pellucida for fertilisation.
  • acrosome compaction - Acrosome reshaping process in final stages of spermatogenesis (spermatid to spermatozoa).
  • acrosome reaction - Chemical change within the spermatozoa following binding to the zona pellucida, only acrosome reacted spermatozoa have an ability to fuse with oocytes.
  • annulus - Cytoskeletal (septin) structure located between the midpiece and principal piece regions of the tail, thought to form a diffusion barrier between these two domains. PMID 20042538
  • asthenozoospermia - (asthenospermia) Term for reduced sperm motility and can be the cause of male infertility.
  • axoneme - (axonema) The basic structure in cilia and eukaryotic flagella and in the spermatozoa tail, consisting of parallel microtubules in a characteristic "9 + 2" pattern. This pattern describes 9 outer microtubule doublets (pairs) surrounding 2 central singlet microtubules, in humans 50 μm long. The motor protein dynenin move the outer microtubules with respect to the central pair, bending the cilia and generating motility. Note that prokaryotic bacteria have a similar process (flagellum) that uses an entirely different mechanism for motility.
  • capacitation - term describing the process by which spermaozoa become capable of fertilizing an oocyte, requires membrane changes, removal of surface glycoproteins and increased motility.
  • caput - proximal head of the epididymis, epithelium with stereocilia, involved in absorbing fluid to concentrate spermatozoa. Underlying smooth muscle aids movement. Epididymis three main parts : caput (head), corpus (body), cauda (tail).
  • CatSper - cationic (Ca2+) channel of spermatozoa, progesterone activated involved in hyperactivation, acrosome reaction, and possibly chemotaxis.
  • cauda - distal tail of the epididymis, region with a thin epithelium and the greatest quantity of smooth muscle. Epididymis three main parts : caput (head), corpus (body), cauda (tail).
  • centriole - a microtubule organising centre. First required for axoneme formation (distal centriole) that is lost and a second for pronuclei formation (proximal) following fertilisation. Rodents loose both and only have maternal centrioles.
  • connecting piece - linkage between the spermatozoa head and the midpiece of the tail. PMID 22767409
  • corpus - elongated body of the epididymis, This has an intermediate thickness of epithelium and thicker smooth muscle layer than caput. Epididymis three main parts : caput (head), corpus (body), cauda (tail).
  • cytoplasmic bridges - Transient cytoplasm connections between spermatids arising from one spermatogonium due to incomplete cytokinesis.
  • diploid - (Greek, di = double + ploion = vessel) Having two sets of chromosomes, the normal state for all cells other than the gametes.
  • end piece - Last portion of the spermatozoa tail region.
  • epididymis - testis tubular structure connecting the efferent ducts to the ductus deferent and functions for the storage and maturation of spermatozoa. Epididymis three main parts : caput (head), corpus (body), cauda (tail). PMID27307387
  • fibrous sheath - cytoskeletal structure surrounding the axoneme and outer dense fibers, defining the extent of the principal piece region.
  • haploid - (Greek, haploos = single) Having a single set of chromosomes as in mature germ/sex cells (oocyte, spermatozoa) following reductive cell division by meiosis. Normally cells are diploid, containing 2 sets of chromosomes.
  • interstitial cell - (Leydig cell) Male gonad (testis) cell which secrete the androgen testosterone, beginning in the fetus.
  • interstitium - testis developmental region (space between testis cords) that generates Leydig cells and other less well characterized cell types.
  • Johnsen score - a clinical score (1-10) for assessing spermatogenesis in a human testicular biopsy. Named after the author of the original article. PMID 5527187
  • Leydig cell - (interstitial cell) Male gonad (testis) cell that secrete the androgen testosterone, beginning in the fetus. Fetal Leydig cells develop from coelomic epithelium and undifferentiated perivascular cells in the gonad–mesonephros border region. Adult Leydig cells appear after birth from stem/progenitor cells among peritubular and peri-vascular cells. Leydig cells were first histologically identified in 1850 by Franz von Leydig (1821 - 1908) a German scientist.
  • meiosis - The cell division that occurs only in production of germ cells where there is a reduction in the number of chromosomes (diploid to haploid) which is the basis of sexual reproduction. All other non-germ cells in the body divide by mitosis.
  • midpiece - (middle piece) spermatozoa tail initial segment of axoneme surrounded outer dense fibres then by mitochondria. Next in the tail is the principal piece then finally the end piece.
  • mitosis - The normal division of all cells, except germ cells, where chromosome number is maintained (diploid). In germ cell division (oocyte, spermatozoa) meiosis is a modified form of this division resulting in reduction in genetic content (haploid). Mitosis, division of the nucleus, is followed by cytokinesis the division of the cell cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic contents. cytokinesis overlaps with telophase.
  • outer dense fibres - (ODF, outer dense fibers) cytoskeletal structures that surround the axoneme in the middle piece and principal piece of the spermatozoa tail.
  • primary spermatocyte - arranged in the seminiferous tubule wall deep (luminal) to the spermatogonia. These large cells enter the prophase of the first meiotic division. (More? meiosis)
  • principal piece - Spermatozoa tail segment containing the plasma membrane calcium channels (CatSper1 and CatSper2) required for hyperactivation of motility. Region is partially separated from the midpiece by a barrier called the annulus.
  • sertoli cells - (sustentacular cell) These cells are the spermatozoa supporting cells, nutritional and mechanical, as well as forming a blood-testis barrier. The cell cytoplasm spans all layers of the seminiferous tubule. The cells are named after Enrico Sertoli (1842 - 1910), and italian physiologist and histologist.
  • sperm annulus - (Jensen's ring; Latin, annulus = ring) A region of the mammalian sperm flagellum connecting the midpiece and the principal piece. The annulus is a septin-based structure formed from SEPT1, 4, 6, 7 and 12. Septins are polymerizing GTPases that can act as a scaffold forming hetero-oligomeric filaments required for cytokinesis and other cell cycle roles.
  • spermatogenesis - (Greek, genesis = origin, creation, generation) The term used to describe the process of diploid spermatagonia division and differentiation to form haploid spermatazoa within the testis (male gonad). The process includes the following cellular changes: meiosis, reoorganization of DNA, reduction in DNA content, reorganization of cellular organelles, morphological changes (cell shape). The final process of change in cell shape is also called spermiogenesis.
  • spermatogenesis - (Greek, genesis = origin, creation, generation) The maturation process of the already haploid spermatazoa into the mature sperm shape and organization. This process involves reorganization of cellular organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria), cytoskeletal changes (microtubule organization) and morphological changes (cell shape, acrosome and tail formation).
  • spermatogonia - The cells located in the seminiferous tubule adjacent to the basal membrane that either divide and separate to renew the stem cell population, or they divide and stay together as a pair (Apr spermatogonia) connected by an intercellular cytoplasmic bridge to differentiate and eventually form spermatazoa.
  • spermatozoa head - Following spermiogenesis, the first region of the spermatozoa containing the haploid nucleus and acrosome. In humans, it is a flattened structure (5 µm long by 3 µm wide) with the posterior part of nuclear membrane forming the basal plate region. The human spermatozoa is about 60 µm long, actively motile and divided into 3 main regions (head, neck and spermatozoa tail).
  • spermatozoa neck - Following spermiogenesis, the second region of the spermatozoa attached to basal plate, transverse oriented centriole, contains nine segmented columns of fibrous material, continue as outer dense fibres in tail. In humans, it forms a short structure (1 µm). The human spermatozoa is about 60 µm long, actively motile and divided into 3 main regions (head, neck and tail).
  • spermatozoa tail - Following spermiogenesis, the third region of the spermatozoa that has a head, neck and tail). The tail is also divided into 3 structural regions a middle piece, a principal piece and an end piece. In humans: the middle piece (5 µm long) is formed by axonema and dense fibres surrounded by mitochondria; the principal piece (45 µm long) fibrous sheath interconnected by regularly spaced circumferential hoops; the final end piece (5 µm long) has an axonema surrounded by small amount of cytoplasm and plasma membrane.
  • spermatogonial stem cells - (SSCs) The spermatagonia cells located beside the seminiferous tubule basal membrane that either divide and separate to renew the stem cell population, or they divide and stay together as a pair (|Apr spermatogonia) connected by an intercellular cytoplasmic bridge to differentiate and eventually form spermatazoa.
  • spermatozoon - singular form of of spermatozoa.
  • sperm protein 56 - A component of the spermatozoa acrosomal matrix released to the sperm surface during capacitation.
  • teratospermia - Clinical term for a spermatozoa with abnormal morphology (small, large, defects in the head, tail, and/or mid-piece) present in the semen or ejaculate.
  • testis cords - developmental structure that give rise to the adult seminiferous tubules, the other developmental region is the interstitium.
  • vasectomy - Clinical term for ligation of the scrotal portion of the ductus deferens.

See also: Spermatozoa Terms collapse table

Other Terms Lists  
Terms Lists: ART | Birth | Bone | Cardiovascular | Cell Division | Endocrine | Gastrointestinal | Genital | Genetic | Head | Hearing | Heart | Immune | Integumentary | Neonatal | Neural | Oocyte | Palate | Placenta | Radiation | Renal | Respiratory | Spermatozoa | Statistics | Tooth | Ultrasound | Vision | Historic | Drugs | Glossary
Genital Links: genital | Lecture - Medicine | Lecture - Science | Lecture Movie | Medicine - Practical | primordial germ cell | meiosis | endocrine gonad‎ | Genital Movies | genital abnormalities | Assisted Reproductive Technology | puberty | Category:Genital
Female | X | X inactivation | ovary | corpus luteum | oocyte | uterus | vagina | reproductive cycles | menstrual cycle | Category:Female
Male | Y | SRY | testis | spermatozoa | ductus deferens | penis | prostate | Category:Male
Historic Embryology - Genital 
General: 1901 Urinogenital Tract | 1902 The Uro-Genital System | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1921 Urogenital Development | 1921 External Genital | 1942 Sex Cords | 1953 Germ Cells | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer
Female: 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Hymen | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1914 Female | 1921 External Genital | 1927 Female Foetus 15 cm | 1927 Vagina | 1932 Postnatal Ovary
Male: 1887-88 Testis | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Leydig Cells | 1906 Testis vascular | 1909 Prostate | 1912 Prostate | 1914 External Genitalia | 1915 Cowper’s and Bartholin’s Glands | 1920 Wolffian tubules | 1935 Prepuce | 1935 Wolffian Duct | 1942 Sex Cords | 1943 Testes Descent | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer
Links: Spermatozoa Histology | Histology Stain H&E | Histology Stains

Molecular

Sry

  • Y chromosome gene for a transcription factor
  • member of the high mobility group (HMG)-box family of DNA binding proteins
  • human - 204 amino acid protein[27]
Links: OMIM - Sry

Sox9

  • autosomal transcription factor
  • Development of XY females - presence of only a single functional copy of the transcription factor encoding genes SOX9, SF1, or WT1 (Note- not all XY humans are sex-reversed if only a single copy of a normal SF1 or WT1 allele is present)
  • A nuclear export signal within the high mobility group domain regulates the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of SOX9 during sexual determination[28]

Other roles

  • Cartilage - essential for chondrocyte differentiation
  • Hearing - otic placode formation, maintenance of progenitors in the otic epithelium


Links: Sox9 | Cartilage Development | Inner Ear Development

Fog2

  • transcription factor, named Friend of Gata2
  • human - (8q23) 1,151 amino acid nuclear protein that contains 8 zinc finger motifs[29]
  • dosage critical for fetal testis development in mice[30]
Links: OMIM - Fog2

Gadd45g

Gadd45g and Sex Determination Model[1]

Growth Arrest- And Dna Damage-Inducible Gene (GADD45, GAMMA; GADD45G)

A Recent mouse study[1] has shown that Gadd45g protein has a role in primary sex differentiation. Knockout mice (Gadd45g(-/-) XY gonads) resulted in a a sex reversal.


Links: OMIM - Gadd45g

Gata4

  • transcription factor
  • dosage critical for fetal testis development in mice[30]

Eif2s3y

References

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  2. Wen Q, Wang Y, Tang J, Cheng CY & Liu YX. (2016). Sertoli Cell Wt1 Regulates Peritubular Myoid Cell and Fetal Leydig Cell Differentiation during Fetal Testis Development. PLoS ONE , 11, e0167920. PMID: 28036337 DOI.
  3. Caruso M, Ferranti F, Corano Scheri K, Dobrowolny G, Ciccarone F, Grammatico P, Catizone A & Ricci G. (2015). R-spondin 1/dickkopf-1/beta-catenin machinery is involved in testicular embryonic angiogenesis. PLoS ONE , 10, e0124213. PMID: 25910078 DOI.
  4. Bormann CL, Smith GD, Padmanabhan V & Lee TM. (2011). Prenatal testosterone and dihydrotestosterone exposure disrupts ovine testicular development. Reproduction , 142, 167-73. PMID: 21493716 DOI.
  5. Pask AJ, Calatayud NE, Shaw G, Wood WM & Renfree MB. (2010). Oestrogen blocks the nuclear entry of SOX9 in the developing gonad of a marsupial mammal. BMC Biol. , 8, 113. PMID: 20807406 DOI.
  6. Kleisner K, Ivell R & Flegr J. (2010). The evolutionary history of testicular externalization and the origin of the scrotum. J. Biosci. , 35, 27-37. PMID: 20413907
  7. Hiramatsu R, Harikae K, Tsunekawa N, Kurohmaru M, Matsuo I & Kanai Y. (2010). FGF signaling directs a center-to-pole expansion of tubulogenesis in mouse testis differentiation. Development , 137, 303-12. PMID: 20040496 DOI.
  8. Childs AJ, Cowan G, Kinnell HL, Anderson RA & Saunders PT. (2011). Retinoic Acid signalling and the control of meiotic entry in the human fetal gonad. PLoS ONE , 6, e20249. PMID: 21674038 DOI.
  9. Karl J & Capel B. (1998). Sertoli cells of the mouse testis originate from the coelomic epithelium. Dev. Biol. , 203, 323-33. PMID: 9808783 DOI.
  10. Kopera IA, Bilinska B, Cheng CY & Mruk DD. (2010). Sertoli-germ cell junctions in the testis: a review of recent data. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. , 365, 1593-605. PMID: 20403872 DOI.
  11. Griswold MD. (1995). Interactions between germ cells and Sertoli cells in the testis. Biol. Reprod. , 52, 211-6. PMID: 7711190
  12. Heyn R, Makabe S & Motta PM. (2001). Ultrastructural morphodynamics of human Sertoli cells during testicular differentiation. Ital J Anat Embryol , 106, 163-71. PMID: 11732573
  13. Zur Anatomie der männlichen Geschlechtsorgane und Analdrüsen der Säugetiere (On the anatomy of the male sexual organs and anal glands of the mammals). (1850) Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie.
  14. Chen H, Wang Y, Ge R & Zirkin BR. (2017). Leydig cell stem cells: Identification, proliferation and differentiation. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. , 445, 65-73. PMID: 27743991 DOI.
  15. Archambeault DR & Yao HH. (2010). Activin A, a product of fetal Leydig cells, is a unique paracrine regulator of Sertoli cell proliferation and fetal testis cord expansion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 107, 10526-31. PMID: 20498064 DOI.
  16. CHRISTENSEN AK & FAWCETT DW. (1961). The normal fine structure of opossum testicular interstitial cells. J Biophys Biochem Cytol , 9, 653-70. PMID: 13693345
  17. Björkgren I, Saastamoinen L, Krutskikh A, Huhtaniemi I, Poutanen M & Sipilä P. (2012). Dicer1 ablation in the mouse epididymis causes dedifferentiation of the epithelium and imbalance in sex steroid signaling. PLoS ONE , 7, e38457. PMID: 22701646 DOI.
  18. Hinton BT, Galdamez MM, Sutherland A, Bomgardner D, Xu B, Abdel-Fattah R & Yang L. (2011). How do you get six meters of epididymis inside a human scrotum?. J. Androl. , 32, 558-64. PMID: 21441421 DOI.
  19. Hadziselimovic F. (2017). On the descent of the epididymo-testicular unit, cryptorchidism, and prevention of infertility. Basic Clin Androl , 27, 21. PMID: 29163975 DOI.
  20. Favorito LA, Bernardo FO, Costa SF & Sampaio FJ. (2016). Is there a trans-abdominal testicular descent during the second gestational trimester? Study in human fetuses between 13 and 23 weeks post conception. Int Braz J Urol , 42, 558-63. PMID: 27286121
  21. Virtanen HE & Toppari J. (2008). Epidemiology and pathogenesis of cryptorchidism. Hum. Reprod. Update , 14, 49-58. PMID: 18032558 DOI.
  22. Moore CR. (1924). THE BEHAVIOR OF THE GERMINAL EPITHELIUM IN TESTIS GRAFTS AND IN EXPERIMENTAL CRYPTORCHID TESTES (RAT AND GUINEA PIG). Science , 59, 41-4. PMID: 17839834 DOI.
  23. Gapany C, Frey P, Cachat F, Gudinchet F, Jichlinski P, Meyrat BJ, Ramseyer P, Theintz G & Burnand B. (2008). Management of cryptorchidism in children: guidelines. Swiss Med Wkly , 138, 492-8. PMID: 18726735 DOI.
  24. Brauner R, Neve M, Allali S, Trivin C, Lottmann H, Bashamboo A & McElreavey K. (2011). Clinical, biological and genetic analysis of anorchia in 26 boys. PLoS ONE , 6, e23292. PMID: 21853106 DOI.
  25. Rey R. (2005). Anti-Müllerian hormone in disorders of sex determination and differentiation. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol , 49, 26-36. PMID: 16544032 DOI.
  26. Su L, Mruk DD & Cheng CY. (2011). Drug transporters, the blood-testis barrier, and spermatogenesis. J. Endocrinol. , 208, 207-23. PMID: 21134990 DOI.
  27. Su H & Lau YF. (1993). Identification of the transcriptional unit, structural organization, and promoter sequence of the human sex-determining region Y (SRY) gene, using a reverse genetic approach. Am. J. Hum. Genet. , 52, 24-38. PMID: 8434602
  28. Gasca S, Canizares J, De Santa Barbara P, Mejean C, Poulat F, Berta P & Boizet-Bonhoure B. (2002). A nuclear export signal within the high mobility group domain regulates the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of SOX9 during sexual determination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 99, 11199-204. PMID: 12169669 DOI.
  29. Holmes M, Turner J, Fox A, Chisholm O, Crossley M & Chong B. (1999). hFOG-2, a novel zinc finger protein, binds the co-repressor mCtBP2 and modulates GATA-mediated activation. J. Biol. Chem. , 274, 23491-8. PMID: 10438528
  30. 30.0 30.1 Bouma GJ, Washburn LL, Albrecht KH & Eicher EM. (2007). Correct dosage of Fog2 and Gata4 transcription factors is critical for fetal testis development in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 104, 14994-9. PMID: 17848526 DOI.


Reviews

Barton LJ, LeBlanc MG & Lehmann R. (2016). Finding their way: themes in germ cell migration. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. , 42, 128-137. PMID: 27484857 DOI.

De Felici M. (2016). The Formation and Migration of Primordial Germ Cells in Mouse and Man. Results Probl Cell Differ , 58, 23-46. PMID: 27300174 DOI.

Virtanen HE & Toppari J. (2014). Embryology and physiology of testicular development and descent. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev , 11 Suppl 2, 206-13. PMID: 24683945

Svingen T & Koopman P. (2013). Building the mammalian testis: origins, differentiation, and assembly of the component cell populations. Genes Dev. , 27, 2409-26. PMID: 24240231 DOI.

Hinton BT, Galdamez MM, Sutherland A, Bomgardner D, Xu B, Abdel-Fattah R & Yang L. (2011). How do you get six meters of epididymis inside a human scrotum?. J. Androl. , 32, 558-64. PMID: 21441421 DOI.

Griswold SL & Behringer RR. (2009). Fetal Leydig cell origin and development. Sex Dev , 3, 1-15. PMID: 19339813 DOI.

Articles

Kaftanovskaya EM, Feng S, Huang Z, Tan Y, Barbara AM, Kaur S, Truong A, Gorlov IP & Agoulnik AI. (2011). Suppression of insulin-like3 receptor reveals the role of β-catenin and Notch signaling in gubernaculum development. Mol. Endocrinol. , 25, 170-83. PMID: 21147849 DOI.

Stukenborg JB, Colón E & Söder O. (2010). Ontogenesis of testis development and function in humans. Sex Dev , 4, 199-212. PMID: 20664245 DOI.

Hutson JM, Balic A, Nation T & Southwell B. (2010). Cryptorchidism. Semin. Pediatr. Surg. , 19, 215-24. PMID: 20610195 DOI.

Adham IM & Agoulnik AI. (2004). Insulin-like 3 signalling in testicular descent. Int. J. Androl. , 27, 257-65. PMID: 15379965 DOI.

Heyns CF. (1987). The gubernaculum during testicular descent in the human fetus. J. Anat. , 153, 93-112. PMID: 2892824

Books

De Groot LJ, Chrousos G, Dungan K, Feingold KR, Grossman A, Hershman JM, Koch C, Korbonits M, McLachlan R, New M, Purnell J, Rebar R, Singer F, Vinik A & Hutson JM. (2000). Cryptorchidism and Hypospadias. , , . PMID: 25905331

Search PubMed

Search Pubmed: Testis Development | Epididymis Development | Sry | Sox9 |

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Historic Embryology: 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1921 Urogenital Development | 1921 External Genital Development | Historic Disclaimer
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Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

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Genital Links: genital | Lecture - Medicine | Lecture - Science | Lecture Movie | Medicine - Practical | primordial germ cell | meiosis | endocrine gonad‎ | Genital Movies | genital abnormalities | Assisted Reproductive Technology | puberty | Category:Genital
Female | X | X inactivation | ovary | corpus luteum | oocyte | uterus | vagina | reproductive cycles | menstrual cycle | Category:Female
Male | Y | SRY | testis | spermatozoa | ductus deferens | penis | prostate | Category:Male
Historic Embryology - Genital 
General: 1901 Urinogenital Tract | 1902 The Uro-Genital System | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1921 Urogenital Development | 1921 External Genital | 1942 Sex Cords | 1953 Germ Cells | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer
Female: 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Hymen | 1912 Urinogenital Organ Development | 1914 External Genitalia | 1914 Female | 1921 External Genital | 1927 Female Foetus 15 cm | 1927 Vagina | 1932 Postnatal Ovary
Male: 1887-88 Testis | 1904 Ovary and Testis | 1904 Leydig Cells | 1906 Testis vascular | 1909 Prostate | 1912 Prostate | 1914 External Genitalia | 1915 Cowper’s and Bartholin’s Glands | 1920 Wolffian tubules | 1935 Prepuce | 1935 Wolffian Duct | 1942 Sex Cords | 1943 Testes Descent | Historic Embryology Papers | Historic Disclaimer

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Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, March 19) Embryology Testis Development. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Testis_Development

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