Talk:Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection: Difference between revisions

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== Some Recent Findings ==
==2019==
'''Tuberculosis (TB) during pregnancy''' This BJOG paper describes a study which highlights lack of awareness about TB in pregnancy. The number of women who die from TB during pregnancy is increasing in the UK. TB has been classified as a priority infectious disease, and TB incidence in the UK is now higher than that in most western European countries.  
===The Safety of Influenza and Pertussis Vaccination in Pregnancy in a Cohort of Australian Mother-Infant Pairs, 2012-2015: The FluMum Study===
Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Jan 18;68(3):402-408. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy517.


[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19250368? Tuberculosis in pregnancy in the UK.] Knight M, Kurinczuk JJ, Nelson-Piercy C, Spark P, Brocklehurst P; UKOSS. BJOG. 2009 Mar;116(4):584-8. PMID: 19250368
McHugh L1, Marshall HS2, Perrett KP3, Nolan T3, Wood N4, Lambert SB5, Richmond P6, Ware RS7, Binks P1, Binks MJ1, Andrews RM1,8.
Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and pertussis vaccination are recommended in pregnancy. Limited safety data exist for women who received IIV vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy or received both vaccines in pregnancy. We assessed adverse birth outcomes between vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnancies.
METHODS:
Among prospectively enrolled Australian "FluMum" participants (2012-2015), primary exposure was receipt and timing of IIV during pregnancy. Primary outcomes included preterm birth, low birthweight at term (LBWT), and small for gestational age (SGA). We compared birth outcomes for IIV in pregnancy with women unvaccinated in pregnancy using Cox proportional hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Adjusted HRs (aHRs) controlled for potential confounding variables. Sensitivity analyses were conducted in a subgroup of women who received pertussis vaccination during pregnancy to assess whether associations between IIV and adverse outcomes were maintained after adjusting for pertussis vaccination.
RESULTS:
Among 8827 participants in our study, women who received IIV in pregnancy did not have an elevated risk of an adverse birth outcome compared with unvaccinated pregnant women: preterm births (HR, 1.10 [95% CI, .92-1.31]; P = .28); LBWT (HR, 1.05 [95% CI, .76-1.44]; P = .77); or SGA (HR, 0.99 [95% CI, .86-1.15]; P = .94). Adjustment for pertussis vaccination during pregnancy yielded similar results: preterm births (aHR, 1.05 [95% CI, .82-1.34]; P = .69); LBWT (aHR, 0.81 [95% CI, .50-1.29]; P = .37); SGA (aHR, 0.92 [95% CI, .74-1.14]; P = .43). There was no evidence of elevated risk by trimester of IIV.
CONCLUSIONS:
No significant associations were found between maternal IIV or pertussis vaccination in pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, regardless of the trimester of pregnancy a vaccination was given compared to unvaccinated pregnancies.
PMID: 30475988 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy517


"All 229 of eligible UK hospitals participated (between August 2005 and August 2006), representing 100% coverage of women giving birth in the UK. During this period, a total of 33 women were diagnosed with TB during pregnancy. All of these women were non-white. Researchers found that TB in pregnancy in the UK appears to be exclusively limited to ethnic minority women and almost exclusively to those born outside the UK.The authors noted that screening for TB during pregnancy, while recommended, does not seem to be undertaken routinely. This may contribute to a delay in diagnosis."
==2018==


'''Antibiotics during pregnancy''' "Macrolides or clindamycin during the second trimester of pregnancy to women at risk of preterm births can lower the risk, a new systematic review and meta-analysis by Canadian researchers indicates. But the study also found that giving metronidazole alone in the second trimester is linked with a greater risk of preterm birth in the high risk population. The study's authors, from the University of Montreal and Laval University, Quebec, say that delivery before 37 weeks' gestation complicates between 7% and 11% of all pregnancies, is the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality, and is responsible for high healthcare costs ([http://www.sogc.org/jogc/abstracts/200701_Obstetrics_2.pdf Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Canada 2007;29:35-44])." (text from [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/334/7587/224-a BMJ 2007;334(7587):224])
===Lipopolysaccharide-induced maternal inflammation induces direct placental injury without alteration in placental blood flow and induces a secondary fetal intestinal injury that persists into adulthood===


[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16825336 Giuliani MM, Adu-Bobie J, Comanducci M, Arico B, Savino S, Santini L, Brunelli B, Bambini S, Biolchi A, Capecchi B, Cartocci E, Ciucchi L, Di Marcello F, Ferlicca F, Galli B, Luzzi E, Masignani V, Serruto D, Veggi D, Contorni M, Morandi M, Bartalesi A, Cinotti V, Mannucci D, Titta F, Ovidi E, Welsch JA, Granoff D, Rappuoli R, Pizza M.]<nowiki> A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jul 6; [Epub ahead of print] "Meningitis and sepsis caused by serogroup B meningococcus are two severe diseases that still cause significant mortality. To date there is no universal vaccine that prevents these diseases. In this work, five antigens discovered by reverse vaccinology were expressed in a form suitable for large-scale manufacturing and formulated with adjuvants suitable for human use. The vaccine adjuvanted by aluminum hydroxide induced bactericidal antibodies in mice against 78% of a panel of 85 meningococcal strains representative of the global population diversity." </nowiki>
Am J Reprod Immunol. 2018 May;79(5):e12816. doi: 10.1111/aji.12816. Epub 2018 Jan 25.


[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16458647 Colombo DF, Lew JL, Pedersen CA, Johnson JR, Fan-Havard P.] Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;194(2):466-70. "Bactericidal levels of ampicillin in the cord blood are rapidly achieved within 30 minutes of administration of ampicillin to the mother. The increase in the ratio of cord to maternal serum ampicillin levels is directly related to time, suggesting a decrease in the clearance of ampicillin in the newborns as compared to the mothers. The cord blood ampicillin concentration exceeds the maternal concentration and both continue to be above the minimal bactericidal concentrations at 5.6 hours after administration."
Fricke EM1, Elgin TG1, Gong H1, Reese J2, Gibson-Corley KN1, Weiss RM1, Zimmerman K1, Bowdler NC1, Kalantera KM3, Mills DA3, Underwood MA3, McElroy SJ1.


== Neisseria Gonorrhea ==
Abstract


{| class="prettytable"
PROBLEM:
| <center>[[Image:Neisseria-gonorrhoeae.jpg]] </center>
Premature birth complicates 10%-12% of deliveries. Infection and inflammation are the most common etiologies and are associated with increased offspring morbidity and mortality. We hypothesize that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal inflammation causes direct placenta injury and subsequent injury to the fetal intestine.
METHOD OF STUDY:
Pregnant C57Bl6 mice were injected intraperitoneally on day 15.5 with 100 μg/kg LPS or saline. Maternal serum, amniotic fluid, placental samples, and ileal samples of offspring were obtained assessed for inflammation and/or injury. Maternal placental ultrasounds were performed. Placental DNA was isolated for microbiome analysis.
RESULTS:
Maternal injection with LPS caused elevated IL-1β, IL-10, IL-6, KC-GRO, and TNF. Placental tissue showed increased IL-1β, IL-6, and KC-GRO and decreased IL-10, but no changes were observed in amniotic fluid. Placental histology demonstrated LPS-induced increases in mineralization and necrosis, but no difference in placental blood flow. Most placentas had no detectable microbiome. Exposure to maternal LPS induced significant injury to the ilea of the offspring.
CONCLUSION:
Lipopolysaccharide causes a maternal inflammatory response that is mirrored in the placenta. Placental histology demonstrates structural changes; however, placental blood flow is preserved. LPS also induces an indirect intestinal injury in the offspring that lasts beyond the neonatal period.
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
KEYWORDS:
cytokines; lipopolysaccharide; microbiome; mouse; placenta
PMID: 29369434 PMCID: PMC5908742 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12816


<center>Neisseria Gonorrhea, arrowed within a cell (diplococci) and extracellular (pleomorphic) (Image CDC) </center>
==2011==
| The gram-negative bacterium ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae'' causes the disease Gonorrhea which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Maternal infection increases the risk of premature birth and ophthalmia neonatorum (infantile purulent conjunctivitis).


[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10456962 Nowicki S, Selvarangan R, Anderson G.] Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect Immun. 1999 Sep;67(9):4974-6. "...This study provides the first experimental model that may mimic the transmission of gonococcal infection from mother to the fetus during pregnancy."
===Prenatal exposure to bacterial endotoxin reduces the number of GAD67- and reelin-immunoreactive neurons in the hippocampus of rat offspring===
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011 Aug 31. [Epub ahead of print]


|}
Nouel D, Burt M, Zhang Y, Harvey L, Boksa P.
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/std/Gonorrhea/STDFact-gonorrhea.htm CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Gonorrhea] | NCBI Bookshelf [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.870 Medical Microbiology - Neisseria gonorrhoeae] |


== Listeria Monocytogenes ==
Abstract


{| class="prettytable"
Epidemiological studies implicate prenatal infection as a risk factor for the development of schizophrenia and autism. Subjects with schizophrenia and autism are reported to exhibit reduced levels of glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67), a marker for GABA neurons, in various brain regions. Reduced levels of reelin, a secretory glycoprotein present in a subpopulation of GABA neurons, have also been found in these disorders. To test if prenatal infection can cause abnormalities in GAD67 and reelin in the brains of offspring, this study used a rat model ofprenatal exposure to the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and assessed numbers of GAD67-immunoreactive (GAD67+) and reelin-immunoreactive (reelin+) neurons in the hippocampus of offspring. In offspring at postnatal day 14 (PD14), GAD67+ cell counts were reduced in the dentate gyrus of the prenatal LPS group compared to prenatal saline controls, while at PD28, GAD67+ cells counts were reduced in the prenatal LPS group in both the dentate gyrus and the CA1. There was a decrease in the number of reelin+ cells in the prenatal LPS offspring compared to controls in the dentate gyrus at PD14. However using Western blotting, no significant effects of prenatal LPS on levels of GAD67 or reelin protein were observed in various brain regions at PD14. These findings support the idea that prenatal infection can cause reductions in postnatal expression of GAD67 and reelin, and in this way, possibly contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia or autism.Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
| [[Image:Listeria-bacterium.jpg]]


<center>Listeria monocytogenes bacteria (Image CDC) </center>
PMID 21889316
| The bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes'' is the pathogenic form of the 7 listeria species. Infection is generally through ingestion of organisms in contaminated food.  
===President's commission considers how to protect human rights after Guatemala experiment===
BMJ. 2011 May 23;342:d3232. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d3232.


Maternal symptoms may be mild, fetal effects can range from insignificant through to major abnormalities. Maternal treatment relates to potential developmental effects.  
Tanne JH.
Source
New York.
PMID: 21606141


See also the listeriosis review article [#12648833 Doganay M., 2003].  
:"The US Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues was established in 2009. Since Susan Reverby, a historian from Wellesley College, near Boston, discovered last year that the US Public Health Service had conducted unethical research in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948, the commission has concentrated on protecting the human rights of people in such studies. The commission held its fifth public session in New York on 18 and 19 May and plans to present its report this summer."


|}
:"In the Guatemala studies nearly 700 people were deliberately infected with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases in hopes of showing that the new drug penicillin could be used immediately after sex to prevent infection. Among those included in the studies were female sex workers, soldiers, prison inmates, and mental hospital patients. They were not told the study’s purpose and did not give informed consent. The studies were never published. Guatemalan authorities are also conducting their own investigation into what happened."
'''Links:''' [#15871123 Guinea pig placenta Listeria model] | NCBI Bookshelf [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=mmed.section.973 Medical Microbiology - Listeria] | [http://www.health.gov.au/internet/wcms/publishing.nsf/content/F5FEE056077CAE50CA2570B6000FCA5B/$File/Listeria.pdf NHMRC (Australia) - Prevention of Listeria (PDF)]


== Lyme Disease ==
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21606141


{| class="prettytable"
http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.d3232.long
| <center>[[Image:Borrelia-burgdorferi.jpg]] </center>


<center>Borrelia burgdorferi, spirochete (or “corkscrew-shaped” bacteria) (Image CDC) </center>
President Obama apologises to Guatemala over 1940s syphilis study BMJ 2010; 341:c5494 doi: 10.1136/bmj.c5494 (Published 4 October 2010)
| The bacterium spirochete ''Borrelia Burgdorferi'' causes Lyme disease. Infection can be through the blood by tick bite.  
http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c5494


|}
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/lyme/index.htm CDC (USA) - Lyme Disease]


== Mycoplasma ==
===Tuberculosis in pregnancy--a major maternal and perinatal challenge===
BJOG. 2011 Aug;118(9):1145-6; author reply 1146. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03012.x.


{| class="prettytable"
Jana N, Barik S, Arora N.
| [[Image:Mycoplasma-pneumoniae.jpg]]<center>Mycoplasma in respiratory epithelium ('''M''', mycoplasma; '''m''', microvillus; '''C''', cilia, EM Image CDC) </center>
Comment on
| Mycoplasmas come in many different varieties, occur as part of the normal human flora, and lack a bacterial cell wall. Infection is generally through the female genital tract.
BJOG. 2011 Jan;118(2):226-31.
PMID 21749618


|}
==2010==
'''Links:''' NCBI Bookshelf [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.2029 Medical Microbiology - Mycoplasma] | CDC [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no1/baseman.htm Mycoplasmas: Sophisticated, Reemerging, and Burdened by Their Notoriety]


== Syphilis ==
===Chorioamnionitis: a multiorgan disease of the fetus?===


{| class="prettytable"
J Perinatol. 2010 Oct;30 Suppl:S21-30.
| <center>[[Image:Treponema-pallidum.jpg]] </center>
Gantert M, Been JV, Gavilanes AW, Garnier Y, Zimmermann LJ, Kramer BW.
Source
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Klinikum Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.


<center>Treponema pallidum (scanning EM, Image CDC) </center>
Abstract
| The bacterium ''Treponema pallidum'' causes syphilis which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Infection can lead to congenital infection with abortion, prematurity, neonatal death or multiple system abnormalities. (More? [syphilis.htm Abnormal Development - Syphilis])


|}
The bacterial infection of chorion and amnion is a common finding in premature delivery and is referred to as chorioamnionitis. As the mother rarely shows symptoms of a systemic inflammation, the course of chorioamnionitis is frequently asymptomatic and chronic. In contrast, the fetal inflammatory response syndrome represents a separate phenomenon, including umbilical inflammation and increased serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the fetus. Ascending maternal infections frequently lead to systemic fetal inflammatory reaction. Clinical studies have shown that antenatal exposure to inflammation puts the extremely immature neonates at a high risk for worsening pulmonary, neurological and other organ development. Interestingly, the presence of chorioamnionitis is associated with a lower rate of neonatal mortality in extremely immature newborns. In the following review, the pathogeneses of inflammation-associated perinatal morbidity are outlined. The concept of fetal multiorganic disease during intrauterine infection is introduced and discussed.
'''Links:''' [http://www.cdc.gov/std/Syphilis/STDFact-Syphilis.htm CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Syphilis] | [http://www.cdc.gov/std/STDFact-STDs&Pregnancy.htm CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - STD and Pregnancy] NCBI Bookshelf [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books&cmd=search&doptcmdl=TOCView&term=Syphilis+AND+mmed%5Bbook%5D Medical Microbiology - Syphilis Search] |


== Mycobacterium Tuberculosis ==
PMID 20877404


{| class="prettytable"
===A safe vaccine (DV-STM-07) against Salmonella infection prevents abortion and confers protective immunity to the pregnant and new born mice===
| [[Image:Mycobacterium-tuberculosis.jpg]]Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (scanning EM, Image CDC)
PLoS One. 2010 Feb 10;5(2):e9139.
| The gram-positive bacterium ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' causes the disease Tuberculosis (TB) usually initially infecting the lungs. The infection can cross the placenta to infect the fetus infecting many different systems (liver, bones, kidneys, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, skin, lymph nodes).  


More than two billion people, one third of the world’s total population, are infected with TB bacilli, an airborne infectious disease that is preventable and curable.
Negi VD, Nagarajan AG, Chakravortty D.
Source
Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Biosafety Laboratories, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.


The Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine was first used in 1921 as a vaccine for tuberculosis disease and also used in some countries to prevent childhood tuberculous meningitis and miliary disease.
Abstract


|-
Pregnancy is a transient immuno-compromised condition which has evolved to avoid the immune rejection of the fetus by the maternal immune system. The altered immune response of the pregnant female leads to increased susceptibility to invading pathogens, resulting in abortion and congenital defects of the fetus and a subnormal response to vaccination. Active vaccination during pregnancy may lead to abortion induced by heightened cell mediated immune response. In this study, we have administered the highly attenuated vaccine strain DeltapmrG-HM-D (DV-STM-07) in female mice before the onset of pregnancy and followed the immune reaction against challenge with virulent S. Typhimurium in pregnant mice. Here we demonstrate that DV-STM-07 vaccine gives protection against Salmonella in pregnant mice and also prevents Salmonella induced abortion. This protection is conferred by directing the immune response towards Th2 activation and Th1 suppression. The low Th1 response prevents abortion. The use of live attenuated vaccine just before pregnancy carries the risk of transmission to the fetus. We have shown that this vaccine is safe as the vaccine strain is quickly eliminated from the mother and is not transmitted to the fetus. This vaccine also confers immunity to the new born mice of vaccinated mothers. Since there is no evidence of the vaccine candidate reaching the new born mice, we hypothesize that it may be due to trans-colostral transfer of protective anti-Salmonella antibodies. These results suggest that our vaccine DV-STM-07 can be very useful in preventing abortion in the pregnant individuals and confer immunity to the new born. Since there are no such vaccine candidates which can be given to the new born and to the pregnant women, this vaccine holds a very bright future to combat Salmonella induced pregnancy loss.
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;


|-
PMID 20161765
| Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB2) is a highly drug-resistant strain subset of MDR-TB ([#MDR-Tuberculosis multidrug-resistant TB]) that have significantly worse outcomes, has now been reported in more than 50 countries. (WHO data)


'''Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis '''(MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs (isoniazid and rifampicin).
==2009==
===Trophoblast infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with placental dysfunction===


'''Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis''' (XDR-TB2) is defined as MDR-TB plus resistance to the most powerful second-line anti-TB drugs (any fluoroquinolone and any of the three injectable drugs: amikacin, capreomycin and kanamycin).
Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009 May;200(5):526.e1-7.


&nbsp;
Gomez LM, Parry S.
| [[Image:WHO-TBnewcases07.jpg]]


|-
Maternal and Child Research Program, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| &nbsp;
Abstract
| &nbsp;
OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether Chlamydia pneumoniae impairs invasive trophoblast function and is associated with preeclampsia.


|-
STUDY DESIGN: We conducted cell viability and invasion assays using primary extravillous trophoblast cells isolated from first-trimester placentas. We performed a case-control study to identify C pneumoniae in trophoblast cells dissected by laser capture microscopy from placentas in women with severe preeclampsia and control subjects who delivered at term.
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;


|-
RESULTS: Trophoblast cell viability and invasion through extracellular matrices were decreased after infection with C pneumoniae (both P < .05). C pneumoniae DNA was detected in trophoblast cells in 15/48 cases but only 3/30 controls (odds ratio, 4.1; P = .02). Positive and negative controls yielded expected results.
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;


|}
CONCLUSION: C pneumoniae infection can reduce trophoblast invasion into the uterine wall and is associated with preeclampsia. Further investigation of the mechanisms by which C pneumoniae induces trophoblast dysfunction, and the identification of therapies to prevent adverse outcomes attributed to trophoblast dysfunction, are warranted.
'''Australian Recommendations'''


BCG vaccination is not recommended for general use in the Australian population.
PMID 19375572


BCG is recommended for:
==2006==


# Aboriginal neonates in areas of high incidence of TB (e.g. Northern Territory, Far North Queensland, northern areas of Western Australia and South Australia)
===Induced biliary excretion of Listeria monocytogenes===
# neonates and children 5 years and under who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
Infect Immun. 2006 Mar;74(3):1819-27.
# neonates born to parents with leprosy or a family history of leprosy


In addition to these recommendations BCG may be considered in the following:
Hardy J, Margolis JJ, Contag CH.


# Children over 5 years who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
SourceDepartment of Pediatrics, E150 Clark Center MC 5427, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
# Health care workers (HCWs) who may be at high risk of exposure to drug resistant cases.  
AbstractListeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous gram-positive bacterium that can cause systemic and often life-threatening disease in immunocompromised hosts. This organism is largely an intracellular pathogen; however, we have determined that it can also grow extracellularly in animals, in the lumen of the gallbladder. The significance of growth in the gallbladder with respect to the pathogenesis and spread of listeriosis depends on the ability of the bacterium to leave this organ and be disseminated to other tissues and into the environment. Should this process be highly inefficient, growth in the gallbladder would have no impact on pathogenesis or spread, but if it occurs efficiently, bacterial growth in this organ may contribute to listeriosis and dissemination of this organism. Here, we use whole-body imaging to determine the efficacy and kinetics of food- and hormone-induced biliary excretion of L. monocytogenes from the murinegallbladder, demonstrating that transit through the bile duct into the intestine can occur within 5 min of induction of gallbladder contraction by food or cholecystokinin and that movement of bacteria through the intestinal lumen can occur very rapidly in the absence of fecal material. These studies demonstrate that L. monocytogenes bacteria replicating in the gallbladder can be expelled from the organ efficiently and that the released bacteria move into the intestinal tract, where they pass into the environment and may possibly reinfect the animal.


(Text Source: Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 30 Number 1, March 2006 - The BCG vaccine: information and recommendations for use in Australia)
PMID 16495556
 
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/default.htm CDC (USA) - Tuberculosis] | [http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/pubs/tbfactsheets/250120.htm CDC (USA) - Tuberculosis Vaccine] | [http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/cda-cdi3001e.htm NHMRC (Australia) - BCG vaccine] | [http://www.who.int/topics/tuberculosis/en/ WHO - tuberculosis] | [http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/index.html WHO Report 2007 - Global tuberculosis control - epidemiology, strategy, financing])
 
== Bacterial Meningitis ==
 
{| class="prettytable"
| [[Image:Neisseria-meningitidis2.jpg]][images/Neisseria-meningitidis2.jpg ]Neisseria meningitidis (arrowed, Image CDC)
| The bacterium ''Neisseria meningitidis'' or ''Haemophilus influenzae'' type B (Hib) can cause the disease bacterial meningitis.
 
Hib immunization for infants and children are generally recommended.
 
Recently a universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus has been developed (See [#Recent Some Recent Findings 2006] and [#11734711 meningococcal vaccine 2001])
 
|-
| [[Image:Haemophilus-influenzae.jpg]][images/Haemophilus-influenzae.jpg ]Haemophilus influenzae (bright green immunofluorescence, Image CDC)
| &nbsp;
 
|}
'''Links:''' [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/meningococcal_g.htm CDC (USA) - Meningococcal Disease] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000680.htm Medline Plus - Meningitis] |
 
== Pertussis ==
The bacterium ''Bordetella pertussis'' can cause the disease Pertussis (Whooping Cough) can lead to infant mortality. (More? [pertussis.htm Pertussis])
 
'''May 2005''' - [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01354.html First Combination Vaccine Approved to Help Protect Adolescents Against Whooping Cough] USA Food and Drug Administration has approved booster immunization against pertussis (whooping cough) in combination with tetanus and diphtheria for adolescents. Pertussis is a highly contagious bacterial disease. (FDA 03 May 2005)
 
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/pertussis_t.htm CDC (USA) - Pertussis] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001561.htm Medline Plus - Pertussis] | [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00048610.htm Pertussis Vaccination: Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)] |
 
== Staphylococcus aureus ==
 
{| class="prettytable"
| <center>[[Image:CDCstaphylococcus-aureus.jpg]] </center>
 
<center>Staphylococcus aureus (scanning EM, Image CDC) </center>
| ''Staphylococcus aureus'' a gram-positive bacterium commonly present (25% of healthy people and animals) on the skin and nasal surfaces, no vaccines are available. Strains of this bacteria can produce toxins related to food poisoning and be resistant to various antibiotics.
 
Methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics including Methicillin, there are other strains which are resistant to specific antibiotics (vancomycin).
 
About 2% of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' produce a toxin Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) which can be fatal in neonates.
 
|}
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/submenus/sub_staphylococcus.htm CDC (USA) - Staphylococcus] | [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol11no10/05-0125.htm CDC (USA) - emerging infectious diseases] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000227.htm Medline Plus - Staph aureus food poisoning] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.737 Medical Microbiology - Staphylococcus] |
 
== Bacterial Vaginosis ==
 
{| class="prettytable"
| <center>[[Image:Lactobacillus.jpg]] </center>
 
<center>Lactobacillus, gram-positive rods among squamous epithelial cells and neutrophils in vaginal smear (Image CDC) </center>
| Bacterial vaginosis imbalance of the normal vaginal flora (more anaerobic bacteria and less normal gram-positive bacteria ''Lactobacillus sp''). Maternal infection is associated with a variety of pregnancy abnormalities including preterm birth and poor perinatal outcome.
 
|}
'''References: '''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=16460868&dopt=Abstract Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, Morselli-Labate AM, Lazzarotto T, Pilu G, Rizzo N.] Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Sep-Oct;128(1-2):40-5. Epub 2006 Feb 3.
 
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/std/bv/STDFact-Bacterial-Vaginosis.htm CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Bacterial Vaginosis] |
 
== Gram Stain ==
Bacterial staining procedure named after Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938). Generally divides bacteria into either:
 
'''Gram-positive bacteria''' purple crystal violet stain is trapped by layer of peptidoglycan (forms outer layer of the cell).
 
'''Gram-negative bacteria''' outer membrane prevents stain from reaching peptidoglycan layer in the periplasm, outer membrane then permeabilized and pink safranin counterstain is trapped by peptidoglycan layer.
 
 
<center>Lactobacillus (gram-positive rods among squamous epithelial cells and neutrophils in vaginal smear, Image CDC) </center>
 
'''Links:''' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=mmed.figgrp.296 Medical Microbiology] | [http://www.microbelibrary.org/asmonly/details.asp?id=1988 American Society for Microbiology]
 
== Australian NHMRC Recommendations ==
'''The Australian NHMRC '''(1988) recommends neonates be assessed for follow-up care under the following conditions.
 
<div align="right">(see the [http://www.health.gov.au/nhmrc/publicat/statemnt/ch32stat.htm NHMRC WWW Page])</div>
 
* Birthweight less than 1500g or gestational age less than 32 weeks
* Small-for-gestational-age neonates
* Perinatal asphyxia
* Apgar score less than 3 at 5 minutes
* clinical evidence of neurological dysfunction
* delay in onset of spontaneous respiration for more than 5 minutes and requiring mechanical ventilation
* Clinical evidence of central nervous system abnormalities ie., seizures, hypotonia
* Hyperbilirubinaemia of greater than 350umol/l in full term neonates
* Genetic, dysmorphic or metabolic disorders or a family history of serious genetic disorder
* Perinatal or serious neonatal infection including children of mothers who are HIV positive
* Psychosocial problems eg., infants of drug-addicted or alcoholic mothers.
 
== WWW Links ==
'''CDC (USA)'''
 
Public Health Training Network [http://www.phppo.cdc.gov/phtn/webcast/epv06/default.asp Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases] (viewable Webcasts requires Media Player) |
 
[http://www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/provisional_recs/default.htm Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Recommendations]
 
'''Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (UK)'''
 
[http://www.rcog.org.uk/index.asp?PageID=307 Infection and Pregnancy - study group recommendations (Jun 2001)]
 
== References ==
'''Links:''' [#PubMedReviews Reviews] | [#PubMedArticles Articles] | [#OnlineTextbooks Online Textbooks] | [#SearchTextbooks Search Textbooks] | [#SearchPubMed Search PubMed] | [#Glossary Glossary]


== Previous References ==
=== Reviews ===
=== Reviews ===
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16374219 Donders GG.] Management of genital infections in pregnant women. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006 Feb;19(1):55-61.  
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16374219 Donders GG.] Management of genital infections in pregnant women. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006 Feb;19(1):55-61.  
Line 260: Line 178:


'''Search PubMed:''' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=bacterial+infection term = bacterial infection]
'''Search PubMed:''' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=bacterial+infection term = bacterial infection]
== WWW Links ==
'''CDC (USA)'''
Public Health Training Network [http://www.phppo.cdc.gov/phtn/webcast/epv06/default.asp Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases] (viewable Webcasts requires Media Player) |
[http://www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/provisional_recs/default.htm Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Recommendations]
'''Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (UK)'''
[http://www.rcog.org.uk/index.asp?PageID=307 Infection and Pregnancy - study group recommendations (Jun 2001)]

Latest revision as of 13:09, 22 January 2019

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Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, April 16) Embryology Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Talk:Abnormal_Development_-_Bacterial_Infection

2019

The Safety of Influenza and Pertussis Vaccination in Pregnancy in a Cohort of Australian Mother-Infant Pairs, 2012-2015: The FluMum Study

Clin Infect Dis. 2019 Jan 18;68(3):402-408. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciy517.

McHugh L1, Marshall HS2, Perrett KP3, Nolan T3, Wood N4, Lambert SB5, Richmond P6, Ware RS7, Binks P1, Binks MJ1, Andrews RM1,8. Author information Abstract BACKGROUND: Inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and pertussis vaccination are recommended in pregnancy. Limited safety data exist for women who received IIV vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy or received both vaccines in pregnancy. We assessed adverse birth outcomes between vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnancies. METHODS: Among prospectively enrolled Australian "FluMum" participants (2012-2015), primary exposure was receipt and timing of IIV during pregnancy. Primary outcomes included preterm birth, low birthweight at term (LBWT), and small for gestational age (SGA). We compared birth outcomes for IIV in pregnancy with women unvaccinated in pregnancy using Cox proportional hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Adjusted HRs (aHRs) controlled for potential confounding variables. Sensitivity analyses were conducted in a subgroup of women who received pertussis vaccination during pregnancy to assess whether associations between IIV and adverse outcomes were maintained after adjusting for pertussis vaccination. RESULTS: Among 8827 participants in our study, women who received IIV in pregnancy did not have an elevated risk of an adverse birth outcome compared with unvaccinated pregnant women: preterm births (HR, 1.10 [95% CI, .92-1.31]; P = .28); LBWT (HR, 1.05 [95% CI, .76-1.44]; P = .77); or SGA (HR, 0.99 [95% CI, .86-1.15]; P = .94). Adjustment for pertussis vaccination during pregnancy yielded similar results: preterm births (aHR, 1.05 [95% CI, .82-1.34]; P = .69); LBWT (aHR, 0.81 [95% CI, .50-1.29]; P = .37); SGA (aHR, 0.92 [95% CI, .74-1.14]; P = .43). There was no evidence of elevated risk by trimester of IIV. CONCLUSIONS: No significant associations were found between maternal IIV or pertussis vaccination in pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, regardless of the trimester of pregnancy a vaccination was given compared to unvaccinated pregnancies. PMID: 30475988 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy517

2018

Lipopolysaccharide-induced maternal inflammation induces direct placental injury without alteration in placental blood flow and induces a secondary fetal intestinal injury that persists into adulthood

Am J Reprod Immunol. 2018 May;79(5):e12816. doi: 10.1111/aji.12816. Epub 2018 Jan 25.

Fricke EM1, Elgin TG1, Gong H1, Reese J2, Gibson-Corley KN1, Weiss RM1, Zimmerman K1, Bowdler NC1, Kalantera KM3, Mills DA3, Underwood MA3, McElroy SJ1.

Abstract

PROBLEM: Premature birth complicates 10%-12% of deliveries. Infection and inflammation are the most common etiologies and are associated with increased offspring morbidity and mortality. We hypothesize that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal inflammation causes direct placenta injury and subsequent injury to the fetal intestine. METHOD OF STUDY: Pregnant C57Bl6 mice were injected intraperitoneally on day 15.5 with 100 μg/kg LPS or saline. Maternal serum, amniotic fluid, placental samples, and ileal samples of offspring were obtained assessed for inflammation and/or injury. Maternal placental ultrasounds were performed. Placental DNA was isolated for microbiome analysis. RESULTS: Maternal injection with LPS caused elevated IL-1β, IL-10, IL-6, KC-GRO, and TNF. Placental tissue showed increased IL-1β, IL-6, and KC-GRO and decreased IL-10, but no changes were observed in amniotic fluid. Placental histology demonstrated LPS-induced increases in mineralization and necrosis, but no difference in placental blood flow. Most placentas had no detectable microbiome. Exposure to maternal LPS induced significant injury to the ilea of the offspring. CONCLUSION: Lipopolysaccharide causes a maternal inflammatory response that is mirrored in the placenta. Placental histology demonstrates structural changes; however, placental blood flow is preserved. LPS also induces an indirect intestinal injury in the offspring that lasts beyond the neonatal period. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. KEYWORDS: cytokines; lipopolysaccharide; microbiome; mouse; placenta PMID: 29369434 PMCID: PMC5908742 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12816

2011

Prenatal exposure to bacterial endotoxin reduces the number of GAD67- and reelin-immunoreactive neurons in the hippocampus of rat offspring

Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011 Aug 31. [Epub ahead of print]

Nouel D, Burt M, Zhang Y, Harvey L, Boksa P.

Abstract

Epidemiological studies implicate prenatal infection as a risk factor for the development of schizophrenia and autism. Subjects with schizophrenia and autism are reported to exhibit reduced levels of glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67), a marker for GABA neurons, in various brain regions. Reduced levels of reelin, a secretory glycoprotein present in a subpopulation of GABA neurons, have also been found in these disorders. To test if prenatal infection can cause abnormalities in GAD67 and reelin in the brains of offspring, this study used a rat model ofprenatal exposure to the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and assessed numbers of GAD67-immunoreactive (GAD67+) and reelin-immunoreactive (reelin+) neurons in the hippocampus of offspring. In offspring at postnatal day 14 (PD14), GAD67+ cell counts were reduced in the dentate gyrus of the prenatal LPS group compared to prenatal saline controls, while at PD28, GAD67+ cells counts were reduced in the prenatal LPS group in both the dentate gyrus and the CA1. There was a decrease in the number of reelin+ cells in the prenatal LPS offspring compared to controls in the dentate gyrus at PD14. However using Western blotting, no significant effects of prenatal LPS on levels of GAD67 or reelin protein were observed in various brain regions at PD14. These findings support the idea that prenatal infection can cause reductions in postnatal expression of GAD67 and reelin, and in this way, possibly contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia or autism.Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

PMID 21889316

President's commission considers how to protect human rights after Guatemala experiment

BMJ. 2011 May 23;342:d3232. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d3232.

Tanne JH. Source New York. PMID: 21606141

"The US Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues was established in 2009. Since Susan Reverby, a historian from Wellesley College, near Boston, discovered last year that the US Public Health Service had conducted unethical research in Guatemala from 1946 to 1948, the commission has concentrated on protecting the human rights of people in such studies. The commission held its fifth public session in New York on 18 and 19 May and plans to present its report this summer."
"In the Guatemala studies nearly 700 people were deliberately infected with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases in hopes of showing that the new drug penicillin could be used immediately after sex to prevent infection. Among those included in the studies were female sex workers, soldiers, prison inmates, and mental hospital patients. They were not told the study’s purpose and did not give informed consent. The studies were never published. Guatemalan authorities are also conducting their own investigation into what happened."

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21606141

http://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.d3232.long

President Obama apologises to Guatemala over 1940s syphilis study BMJ 2010; 341:c5494 doi: 10.1136/bmj.c5494 (Published 4 October 2010) http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c5494


Tuberculosis in pregnancy--a major maternal and perinatal challenge

BJOG. 2011 Aug;118(9):1145-6; author reply 1146. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03012.x.

Jana N, Barik S, Arora N. Comment on BJOG. 2011 Jan;118(2):226-31. PMID 21749618

2010

Chorioamnionitis: a multiorgan disease of the fetus?

J Perinatol. 2010 Oct;30 Suppl:S21-30. Gantert M, Been JV, Gavilanes AW, Garnier Y, Zimmermann LJ, Kramer BW. Source Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Klinikum Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.

Abstract

The bacterial infection of chorion and amnion is a common finding in premature delivery and is referred to as chorioamnionitis. As the mother rarely shows symptoms of a systemic inflammation, the course of chorioamnionitis is frequently asymptomatic and chronic. In contrast, the fetal inflammatory response syndrome represents a separate phenomenon, including umbilical inflammation and increased serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the fetus. Ascending maternal infections frequently lead to systemic fetal inflammatory reaction. Clinical studies have shown that antenatal exposure to inflammation puts the extremely immature neonates at a high risk for worsening pulmonary, neurological and other organ development. Interestingly, the presence of chorioamnionitis is associated with a lower rate of neonatal mortality in extremely immature newborns. In the following review, the pathogeneses of inflammation-associated perinatal morbidity are outlined. The concept of fetal multiorganic disease during intrauterine infection is introduced and discussed.

PMID 20877404

A safe vaccine (DV-STM-07) against Salmonella infection prevents abortion and confers protective immunity to the pregnant and new born mice

PLoS One. 2010 Feb 10;5(2):e9139.

Negi VD, Nagarajan AG, Chakravortty D. Source Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Centre for Infectious Disease Research and Biosafety Laboratories, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.

Abstract

Pregnancy is a transient immuno-compromised condition which has evolved to avoid the immune rejection of the fetus by the maternal immune system. The altered immune response of the pregnant female leads to increased susceptibility to invading pathogens, resulting in abortion and congenital defects of the fetus and a subnormal response to vaccination. Active vaccination during pregnancy may lead to abortion induced by heightened cell mediated immune response. In this study, we have administered the highly attenuated vaccine strain DeltapmrG-HM-D (DV-STM-07) in female mice before the onset of pregnancy and followed the immune reaction against challenge with virulent S. Typhimurium in pregnant mice. Here we demonstrate that DV-STM-07 vaccine gives protection against Salmonella in pregnant mice and also prevents Salmonella induced abortion. This protection is conferred by directing the immune response towards Th2 activation and Th1 suppression. The low Th1 response prevents abortion. The use of live attenuated vaccine just before pregnancy carries the risk of transmission to the fetus. We have shown that this vaccine is safe as the vaccine strain is quickly eliminated from the mother and is not transmitted to the fetus. This vaccine also confers immunity to the new born mice of vaccinated mothers. Since there is no evidence of the vaccine candidate reaching the new born mice, we hypothesize that it may be due to trans-colostral transfer of protective anti-Salmonella antibodies. These results suggest that our vaccine DV-STM-07 can be very useful in preventing abortion in the pregnant individuals and confer immunity to the new born. Since there are no such vaccine candidates which can be given to the new born and to the pregnant women, this vaccine holds a very bright future to combat Salmonella induced pregnancy loss.

PMID 20161765

2009

Trophoblast infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with placental dysfunction

Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009 May;200(5):526.e1-7.

Gomez LM, Parry S.

Maternal and Child Research Program, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA. Abstract OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether Chlamydia pneumoniae impairs invasive trophoblast function and is associated with preeclampsia.

STUDY DESIGN: We conducted cell viability and invasion assays using primary extravillous trophoblast cells isolated from first-trimester placentas. We performed a case-control study to identify C pneumoniae in trophoblast cells dissected by laser capture microscopy from placentas in women with severe preeclampsia and control subjects who delivered at term.

RESULTS: Trophoblast cell viability and invasion through extracellular matrices were decreased after infection with C pneumoniae (both P < .05). C pneumoniae DNA was detected in trophoblast cells in 15/48 cases but only 3/30 controls (odds ratio, 4.1; P = .02). Positive and negative controls yielded expected results.

CONCLUSION: C pneumoniae infection can reduce trophoblast invasion into the uterine wall and is associated with preeclampsia. Further investigation of the mechanisms by which C pneumoniae induces trophoblast dysfunction, and the identification of therapies to prevent adverse outcomes attributed to trophoblast dysfunction, are warranted.

PMID 19375572

2006

Induced biliary excretion of Listeria monocytogenes

Infect Immun. 2006 Mar;74(3):1819-27.

Hardy J, Margolis JJ, Contag CH.

SourceDepartment of Pediatrics, E150 Clark Center MC 5427, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. AbstractListeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous gram-positive bacterium that can cause systemic and often life-threatening disease in immunocompromised hosts. This organism is largely an intracellular pathogen; however, we have determined that it can also grow extracellularly in animals, in the lumen of the gallbladder. The significance of growth in the gallbladder with respect to the pathogenesis and spread of listeriosis depends on the ability of the bacterium to leave this organ and be disseminated to other tissues and into the environment. Should this process be highly inefficient, growth in the gallbladder would have no impact on pathogenesis or spread, but if it occurs efficiently, bacterial growth in this organ may contribute to listeriosis and dissemination of this organism. Here, we use whole-body imaging to determine the efficacy and kinetics of food- and hormone-induced biliary excretion of L. monocytogenes from the murinegallbladder, demonstrating that transit through the bile duct into the intestine can occur within 5 min of induction of gallbladder contraction by food or cholecystokinin and that movement of bacteria through the intestinal lumen can occur very rapidly in the absence of fecal material. These studies demonstrate that L. monocytogenes bacteria replicating in the gallbladder can be expelled from the organ efficiently and that the released bacteria move into the intestinal tract, where they pass into the environment and may possibly reinfect the animal.

PMID 16495556

Previous References

Reviews

Donders GG. Management of genital infections in pregnant women. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006 Feb;19(1):55-61.

Goodnight WH, Soper DE. Pneumonia in pregnancy. Crit Care Med. 2005 Oct;33(10 Suppl):S390-7.

Boggess KA. Pathophysiology of preterm birth: emerging concepts of maternal infection. Clin Perinatol. 2005 Sep;32(3):561-9.

Hirsch E, Wang H. The molecular pathophysiology of bacterially induced preterm labor: insights from the murine model. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2005 Apr;12(3):145-55.

Berman SM. Maternal syphilis: pathophysiology and treatment. Bull World Health Organ. 2004 Jun;82(6):433-8.

Doganay M. Listeriosis: clinical presentation. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2003 Apr 1;35(3):173-5.

Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, Andrews WW. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 18;342(20):1500-7.

Ross SM. Sexually transmitted diseases in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1982 Dec;9(3):565-92.

Articles

Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, Morselli-Labate AM, Lazzarotto T, Pilu G, Rizzo N. Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Sep-Oct;128(1-2):40-5. Epub 2006 Feb 3.

Giuliani MM, Adu-Bobie J, Comanducci M, Arico B, Savino S, Santini L, Brunelli B, Bambini S, Biolchi A, Capecchi B, Cartocci E, Ciucchi L, Di Marcello F, Ferlicca F, Galli B, Luzzi E, Masignani V, Serruto D, Veggi D, Contorni M, Morandi M, Bartalesi A, Cinotti V, Mannucci D, Titta F, Ovidi E, Welsch JA, Granoff D, Rappuoli R, Pizza M. A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jul 6; [Epub ahead of print]

Colombo DF, Lew JL, Pedersen CA, Johnson JR, Fan-Havard P. Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;194(2):466-70.

Bakardjiev AI, Stacy BA, Portnoy DA. Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in the guinea pig placenta and role of cell-to-cell spread in fetal infection. J Infect Dis. 2005 Jun 1;191(11):1889-97.

Goffinet F, Maillard F, Mihoubi N, Kayem G, Papiernik E, Cabrol D, Paul G. Bacterial vaginosis: prevalence and predictive value for premature delivery and neonatal infection in women with preterm labour and intact membranes. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2003 Jun 10;108(2):146-51.

Morley SL, Cole MJ, Ison CA, Camaraza MA, Sotolongo F, Anwar N, Cuevas I, Carbonero M, Campa HC, Sierra G, Levin M. Immunogenicity of a serogroup B meningococcal vaccine against multiple Neisseria meningitidis strains in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001 Nov;20(11):1054-61.

Nowicki S, Selvarangan R, Anderson G. Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect Immun. 1999 Sep;67(9):4974-6.

Search PubMed

Search Jan2006 "bacterial infection" 547,445 reference articles of which 45,020 were reviews.

Search PubMed: term = bacterial infection

WWW Links

CDC (USA)

Public Health Training Network Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (viewable Webcasts requires Media Player) |

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Recommendations

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (UK)

Infection and Pregnancy - study group recommendations (Jun 2001)

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