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=On The Development Of The Aortae, Cardinal And Umbilical Veins, And The Other Blood Vessels Of Vertebrate Embryos From Capillaries=
 
By
 
Herbert M. Evans.
 
From the Anatomical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University.
 
With Twenty-one Figures.
 
==Introduction==
 
In explanation of the somewhat comprehensive title of this report,
I would say that I have omitted entirely, for the present at least,
the development of the heart, first arch and cephalic aortae. But, on
the other hand, the injections which I shall describe speak with great
clearness on the primitive form and development of all that portion
of the aorta below the omphalo—mesenteric arteries, of the entire
upper portions of the anterior cardinal veins, and quite fully, of the
posterior cardinal and umbilical veins. In addition to these primary
trunks, I have explored other branches of the vascular tree in embryos
 
of different ages and in various portions of the body and find everywhere the same story.
 
The patient and thoroughgoing analysis of serial sections through .
 
vertebrate embryos has, in the last twenty years, given us a fairly
accurate idea of the position, size, and relations of all the chief vascular trunks present in successive stages. But such knowledge, even
though complete, can tell us little or nothing about the method of
development of the vascular system. When a large trunk is described
as having extended to a certain level in the body wall or on a viscus we
have still no idea of how it reached its position. Many processes
could be concerned.
 
‘Read at the Twenty_fourth Session of the Association of American Anatomists, December, 1908.
 
(498)
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 499
 
lf the vessel i11 question was derived from neighboring vessels,
and in some instances even this has been disputed, have we then to
conceive of it as having grown out as such to its future territory?
Certainly such a conception dominated the descriptive anatomy of
a century ago and even to-day has not altogether lost its influence.
Arteries are still described as dividing dichotomously and otherwise
in accordance with the unconscious simile afforded by plant growth.
To such an idea many of the vascular anomalies‘ proved an utter
enigma. Double vessels in place of the usual single one were disposed of by considering one vessel as the normal one and its brother
as the interloper or “aberrant.” It is easy to understand the curiosity with which anastomoses between strong and usually separate
arterial channels were looked upon. Why indeed should vessels
which had grown out to their destination, send communicating
branches to their neighbors? Thus the surprise with which Hunter
discovered the phenomenon of a collateral circulation. Such phenomena in the adult body are themselves splendid evidences for
quite another conception of the development of the vascular system,
a conception which was first partially expressed by the anatomist
Aeby in his “Der Bau des menschlichen Kiirpers,” in 1868. Aeby
contributed a mere hypothesis, but it has only recently been recalled
and can now be convincingly supported by actual studies on the early
developing vessels.
 
Both arteries and veins, said Aeby, arise from netlike anlagen;
the veins retain this the more, whence the numerous venous anastomoses; the arteries hardly at all, whence their greater rarity here.
He conceived of the whole question as one of functional adaptation.
Not all the members of the vascular net are retained; the victors in
the struggle are the trunks as we know them in the adult.
 
Such an illuminating conception explained adequately all vascular
anomalies. From the preceding network, the persisting vessel could
course in practically any direction and with practically any connections. Though Krause, who wrote the admirable section on the
variation of the vascular system in Henle’s Anatomy,’ readily saw
the advantages of Aeby’s explanation and adopted it, the conception
was not recalled in any form for many years.
 
‘Heme. J. "Handbuch der Gcfiisslehre des Menschen," Braunschweig, 1876.
500 Herbert M. Evans.
 
In the anatomy of the adult vascular system nothing approaching
a netlike condition exists until we reach the capillary bed, where
it forms a characteristic feature. Is it not indeed a capillary net,
this primitive net postulated by Aeby?
 
"The answer to this was given by the research of R. Thoma3 in
1893. In his attempt to solve the question of ancestry of arteries
and veins Thoma selected the chick’s yolk vessels where he soon
observed stages so early that only a plexus of capillaries existed.
Here no channels of the net were conspicuously larger or smaller
than their neighbors, but from among them, in later stages, the chief
vitelline arteries and veins are formed. Thoma’s idea of how this
transformation is brought about, his conception of the determining
influence of the velocity of the circulation, is of the greatest interest,
though it has not been adequately tested, nor does it concern us here.
On anatomical grounds alone, however, it should be possible to establish clearly or disprove the more general statement that arteries
and veins exist originally in the form of a capillary mesh. If this
is a fact of general- value, it will apply to the developing vascular
system within the body of the embryo quite as well as to the extraembryonic circulation which Thoma had studied. The work of
three recent investigators has indicated that this is indeed the case.
I refer to the papers of Miiller, Rabl, and Sterzi. ‘The latter observer
has studied the vascularization of the spinal cord and some of his
descriptions are splendid evidence of the capillary plexus ancestry
of these vessels, though Sterzi himself has not realized their wider
significance in this light. As I shall show later, the vessels of the
cord and brain illustrate particularly well the method of origin and
growth of the vascular system. The work of Miiller and of Rabl
has been referred to in a previous communication‘ in which I also
called attention to Curt Elze’s emphatic criticism of their contention.
Elze,5 in a research done chiefly in Hochstetter’s laboratory, has
 
‘Thoma. R. “Untersuchungen fiber die Histogenese und Hlstomechanlk des
Gefiisssystems,” 1893.
 
‘Evans. “On an Instance of Two Subclavian Arteries to the Early Arm Bud
of Man,” Anat. Record, II, 9, Dec., 1908.
 
‘Elze. “Beschreibung eines menschlichen Embryo," Anat. Hefte, Bd. 35,
1907.
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 501
 
seen fit to deny emphatically such an origin for the blood vessels.
One were as justified, he says, in the absurdity of considering the
aortic arches as arising from capillaries, and yet many of the injections in this series show exactly this origin for the arches.
 
Moreover, it has now been possible to show that the main vessels
of the limbs, the subclavian and the sciatic arteries, are the single
persisting channels of a distinct plexus of capillaries which springs
directly from the lateral aortic wall opposite the earliest indication
of the limb buds.“
 
Surely. however, the whole question can be put to the most convincing test possible if the primary vessels themselves, the aorta-.
and the cardinal veins, can be shown to be formed in this way. I
have accordingly set to work to decide this question through injections
of very young embryos. The injection method had already shown
itself to be by far the most efiicient way to demonstrate the form and
entire extent of the vascular system in any area or organ. The
methods employed in the injection of these minute vessels have already
been indicated in a previous publication and a portion of the injected
specimens shown at the last two annual meetings of this association,
at New York, 1906, and at Chicago, 1907.
 
Chick embryos were selected for the study, not only for the convenience in securing and controlling material but also because 1he
presence of early and easily accessible vitelline vessels furnishes a
good portal of entry for the injection.
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LOWER AORTAE.
 
In embryos of the chick and duck possessing from twelve to fifteen
somites, the aortae begin to be in free communication with the extraeinbryonic vitelline capillary net near the most caudal of the series
of somites. Here also the character of the aortae becomes entirely
changed. They are no longer the distinct and fairly straight tubes
which they constitute in the upper portion of the body, but instead
 
‘Evans. “On the Earliest Blood-vessels in the Anterior Limb Buds of Birds
and their Relation to the Primary Subclavian Artery.” Am. Jour. Anat., IX.
2. May, 1909.
502 Herbert M. Evans.
 
begin to be most irregular, connecting with the vitelline capillaries
at as many points as would obtain in any capillary mesh and soon
becoming resolved completely into the general extra-embryonic net
from which they are entirely indistinguishable. In but a short
distance, corresponding to the length of some five or six somites (were
they present here), the vitelline capillaries no longer gain the median
region of the embryo but surround the latter in a wide detour which
always characteristically encirclesthe caudal extremity—the region
of the primitive streak.
 
By the time the embryo possesses some twenty-four somites, the
two aortae extend entirely through it, fusing with the vitelline capillaries only when the caudal tip has been reached. In what manner
were the lower aortas developed?
 
A study of the intermediate stages in injected specimens makes
it possible to give a very clear answer to this question.
 
By the stage of twenty somites marked changes have occurred
from thelearlier condition described. The aortae no longer appear
to terminate in the region from the twelfth somite on, but are continued as strong vessels to the level of the twentieth segment, the
caudal limit formerly reached by the most medial portion of the
extra-embryonic plexus. Evidently the plexus formerly here has
given place to the stronger single channel, but it has also continued
to grow caudally in the tissues of the embryo, for it now reaches a
considerable distance further caudad, to a point corresponding in
position with the future twenty-fifth somite. In other words, there
has been a continuous caudad invasion of the embryo by a plexus
continuous always laterally with the extra-embryonic or vitelline net.
 
fiG. 1.—Ventral view of the posterior part of an injected chick embryo of
17 somites, showing plexiform character of the aorta: opposite the 17th
somite.
 
Fro. 2.—Ventral view of the posterior part of an injected chick embryo of
20 somites, howing an extension of the plexus out of which the aorta develops. The large nonvascular area surrounding the region of the primitive
steak is here much reduced in extent.
 
Fro. 3.—Ventral view of the posterior part of an injected chick embryo of
23 somites, showing the completion of the down growth of the capillary plexus
out of which the aortae are formed.
1; ‘um ‘H1 "MIA '«nm.n-In ‘IHIIIWMHV HIM.
 
'l.'N \1.\hl 'I\l .I.)|Ir|IlI|i~l ll
 
 
'HU\ll||WH| \“ll\lN|lN~'!l)l\!\ JIM Hl{A|¥.‘M‘*|\ (l(|l|‘lH
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 503
 
That portion of the plexus formerly occurring in the region from the
fifteenth to the twentieth somites has had its most medial margin
enlarged into the continuation of the aorta on each side, but this
has involved also the elimination of its former frequent connections
in this region with the remainder of the mesh. Some of the steps
in this process are to be seen beginning in the mesh now present
below the level of the twentieth somite, for in the upper portions
of this the medial margin of the plexus is distinctly accentuated
above its fellows, with which, however, it is still in continuous communication.
 
From now on, in successive stages, there is continued caudally this
invasion of capillaries and the conversion of the innermost strand
of the plexus into the continuation of the aortae.
 
Such a conception of the development of the aorta, I find was
clearly indicated by His and especially by Vitalleton. The single
figure of His showing one of the stages in this process gave the clue
to the story, but, doubtless due to the difficulty -in recognizing the
limit of capillaries by ordinary methods, Riickert and others have
not accepted these views. Our preparations, however, have given in
all its details this method of the formation of the lower aortaa.
 
It is interesting to note that the many connections of the aorta
with the plexus from which they have been formed persist for a long
time in the area below the level of origin of the main vitelline
arteries. They may be said to form the primary circulation of this
portion of the intestine, for, when the caudal vitelline vein is established and comes to encircle the posterior intestinal portal, these tiny
vessels, coursing in the splanchnoplenre, connect the aortae with this
vein.
 
ANTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS.
 
At the same time that capillary growth begins to more actively
extend the aortae caudally, i. 3., at the stage of fifteen somites, significant changes also begin in the region of the head. Here the
earliest capillaries to grow out independently into the tissues of the
embryos have arisen from the cephalic convexity of the first aortic
arch and, extending dorso-laterally, formed a few meshes opposite
504: Herbert M. Evans.
 
the constriction between ‘fore and mid-brain. From here the capillaries spread forwards and backwards, growing somewhat more
rapidly in the latter direction, so that a small plexus is soon formed
at the side of the mid—brain. Anteriorly, the sprouts tend to encircle
the stalk of the optic vesicles. At other points more caudad the
dorsal aortas give rise to capillary sprouts which grow forwards and
join those just mentioned and growing also in the opposite direction,
coalesce with the vitelline veins near the junction of the latter trunks
with the heart. Thus a slender but continuous chain of capillary
vessels extends from the head region to the vitelline veins. Evidently enough of a circulation exists through this minute head plexus,
fed as it is at several points from the aortas, to fashion a venule
from the more caudal capillaries, 13. e., those opposite the hind brain,
so that at a very early date we have the picture of a long slender
venule leading back from the plexus at about the region of the
isthmus between mid and hind-brain to the vitelline veins near the
heart.
 
It is out of this capillary plexus which has begun to grow up about
the mid and fore brain vesicles that the head veins are all ultimately
formed. These veins are the chief tributaries of the anterior cardinal trunk and consequently extend the latter vessel much forward
into the region of the head.
 
In all vertebrate embryos which I have studied, a portion of this
capillary plexus opposite the mid-brain soon lies more superficially
than the remainder and it is from these capillaries, enlarging soon,
that the main vein is destined to be continued. This interesting
stage in the development of the head vessels is seen in figs. 4,
5, and 6. H
 
It is thus possible to trace the history of all the head tributaries
of the anterior cardinal. Out of the capillaries connecting the more
superficial ones just mentioned with those surrounding the sides of
the optic vesicle, are formed the ophthalmic veins. And at the same
time the caudal margin of the plexus covering the mid-brain is enlarged to form a prominent drainage channel, a vein which is thus
situated at the isthmus between hind and mid-brain or at the caudal
edge of the latter vesicle.
IILUUII \'I-HHHIN HI" \'l'I¢'l'l'I|lI.\'|'I'I I'..'\Il|IlHlH.
 
Ill'IlllII'}Il'l' M. l‘I\'.\ N}:
 
I"Ir: G.
 
‘HIM MM‘l'UMII'Ah "I-lI'IllIlI. \'--I.. III. Nu. :1‘
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 505
 
POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEIN.
 
The origin and development of the posterior cardinal vein whose
entire history can be followed, is the result of the activities of two
systems of capillaries, a chain of capillaries arising from the duct
of Cuvier and growing caudally in the splanchnopleure, and a row
of capillaries, the intersegmental vessels, which in simple loops spring
from the aorta and annex themselves successively to the former chain.
What guides the course of these particular capillaries—the segmental
vessels—so accurately into these loops is at present unknown, but it
is no doubt a direct influence of the segmental structure of the neighboring mesenchyme which only favors endothelial proliferation at
the inter«somitic spaces. Hence it is that at these intervals, the
segmental capillaries (to become later the segmental arteries) grow
out at right angles to the main axis of the embryo and after a dorsolateral loop or bend are free to extend longitudinally. Such a longitudinal extension involves their union with the capillary chain which
 
fiG. 3b.—Lateral view of head of injected chick embryo of 15 somites,
showing primary head capillary plexus. The plexus takes origin from the convexity of the first aortic arch at several points and is continued posteriorly as
a slender capillary chain which eventually joins the main vitelline vein near
its junction with the heart. This slender capillary chain has arisen at
several points from the dorsal aorta on each side, and two of these points
of origin are still preserved, opposite the region of the hind brain. The
delicate capillary path from the head plexus to the vitelline vein is destined
to form the anterior cardinal vein.
 
fiG. 4.—-Lateral view of head of injected chick embryo of 17 somites. showing the primary head capillary plexus partially covering the lateral sides of
the fore and mid-brain vesicles. It will be seen that a‘ portion of the plexus
lies more superficially than the remainder, and it is this superficial portion
which «is destined to become the main trunk of the vein in this region. The
artery is shown darker than the vein.
 
fiG. 5.—Lateral view of head of injected chick embryo of 20 omites. showing the further development of the anterior cardinal vein out of the primary
head capillary plexus. The capillaries bordering the groove between mid and
bind brain have formed a prominent tributary of the main vein.
 
fiG. 6.—Lateral view of head of injected chick embryo of 25 somites. The
lateral surfaces of the fore and mid brain vesicles are now completely covered
by the capillary net, which is extending dorsally but is still far from the middorsal line. There is seen a corresponding great growth of the anterior cardinal vein and its system of tributaries.
506 Herbert M. Evans.
 
has grown down from Cuvier’s duct and thus this channel is extended.
Beyond the first four or five segments, this channel consists often of
a single longitudinally coursing capillary and it is now further
 
 
 
fig. 8
 
Fm. 7.—View or a total mount of an injected chick embryo of 17 somites,
showing the duct of Cuvier and subadjacent region. (X 80.) a=anterior
cardinal vein; b=duct of Cuvier; c=10th segmental vessel; P. C. V. ..-.-capillaries from which the poterior cardinal vein is formed; x=endothelial
sprout representing the 11th segmental vessel.
 
Fm. 8.—View or a total mount of an injected chick embryo of 21 somites.
showing the duct of Cuvier and subjacent region. (x 80.) The lettering is
the same as in the preceding figure, with the exception of x, which represents
the 14th segmental vessel. One sees the segmental capillaries biturcate often
into anterior and posterior sprouts. the union of which makes the continuation of the vein.
 
extended caudally solely by the longitudinal sprouts of the segmental
capillaries, the cephalic sprout of the last of these joining the caudal
sprout of the next preceding one as figs. 7 and 8 show. CoinBLOOD VESSELS OF VEBTEBRATE EMBRYOS.
 
HERBERT M. EVANS.
 
 
Tm) A2\'ATO.\IICA.L RECORD.‘-VOL. 111, N0. 9.
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 507
 
cident With~the extension of this vessel its upper section becomes
larger, for the increased number of segmental afferents gives a considerable drainage territory; thus it is that it soon becomes a vessel
of more than capillary size and recognizable as the posterior cardinal
vein.
 
UMBILICAI. VEIN.
 
Those irregular capillary meshes which border the duct of Cuvier
in embryos of from fifteen to seventeen somites and which aid in the
formation of the upper end of the posterior cardinal vein, after a
considerable interval, again sprout caudally, this time in the somatopleure, and are developed later into the veins which We can recognize
as the umbilicals. The history of these veins in the chick is fraught
with the greatest interest, for by the injections we can follow them
in the assumption of several roles in the embryonic circulation, long
before the establishment of their ultimate function in connection
with the allantois. They are successively the drainage channels of
the arm, thebody wall, and the leg before the allantois has arisen.
The latter sac indeed attains some little size before its vessels are
 
.in connection with the umbilical veins.
 
By the stage of twenty-three somites the first capillaries of the
later umbilical vein form a simple mesh Work in the uppermost
portion of the somatopleure. Soon the cell mass constituting the
future anterior limb becomes evident and its growth stimulates the
 
fiG. 9.—Injected chick embryo of 23 somites to show the origin of the
umbilical vein from a capillary plexus situated in the angle between the
posterior cardinal vein and the duct of Cuvier. A. C. V.= anterior cardinal
vein; P. C. V.=posterlor cardinal vein; U=capiliaries destined to form the
umbilical vein.
 
Fm. 10.-Injected chick embryo of 24 somites to show the extension in the
 
somatopleure, of capillary plexus forming the umbilical vein. The lettering is
the same as fig. 9. »
 
fiG. 11.—Injected chick embryo of 30 somites. The capillaries destined to
form the umbilical vein have reached the region of the future arm bud where
they are joined by a direct capillary sprout from the aorta (subclavian
artery).
 
fiG. 12.——Injected chick embryo of 35 somites, showing establishment of
umbilical vein as the main drainage channel of the anterior limb.
508 Herbert M. Evans.
 
outgrowth from the aorta of a whole series of capillaries which unite
to form a delicate plexus. These capillaries find and unite with
those which have grown down from the duct of Cuvier and thus is
 
fiG. 13.—Injec-ted chick embryo of the third day showing extension of
capillaries from which the umbilical vein is formed, as far as the posterior
limb bud. The reduction is much greater than in the preceding figures in
order that the entire embryo can be shown.
 
established the earliest circulation in the limb bud, a circulation
consisting of many afferent capillaries streaming from the lateral
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 509
 
aortic wall, forming in the limb tissue a few simple meshes and draining headwards into the capillary chain, already somewhat enlarged
and venous in character, which is the later umbilical vein.‘
 
This capillary net still continues to grow caudally in the somatopleure, below the level of the upper limbs. At the same time
another mesh of capillaries, that which has arisen in the posterior
limb buds, has begun to grow upwards and the union of these two
plexuses establishes a narrow continuous mesh in the somatopleure,
 
 
fig. 14
 
fiG. 14.—Cuudal end of an injected chick embryo showing the subintestinal
vein draining the tail, allantois and posterior limbs. a, b.=allantoic
branches; 1. b.=limb branches; S. V.=subintestinal vein; P. C. V.=
posterior cardinal vein; Ao.=aortn: C. V. V.=cauda1 vitelline vein; U. A.
= umbilical artery; U. V.=umbi1ical vein.
 
into which the vessels of both limb buds and the body wall now
drain. The capillaries of the hind limbs have also acquired connections with a more ventrally placed vcin—tl1e sub-intestinal vein,
which has arisen in connection with the drainage of the tail and the
allantois. This vein has hitherto been entirely overlooked and its
presence in any of the embryos of the higher vertebrates is entirely
unknown save for a few sentences announcing its occurrence in the
ninety-six hour chick in the recent work by Lillie.‘ His remarks" on
the discovery of this vessel can be very appreciably extended now
 
‘Lillie. "The Development of the Chick.” 1909.
510 Herbert M. Evans.
 
from the injections. As has just been indicated, the sub—intestinal
vein in Aves forms the primary drainage channel for the tail, hind
limbs and allantois. Its position and chief tributaries can be seen
from fig. 14. Somewhat later, and at about the time the allantois approaches a millimeter in diameter, the umbilical system of
capillaries has united with its vessels and begins to function as a
means of drainage for the allantoic circulation. The uppermost
portions of the umbilical have now enlarged appreciably, its connections with both limb buds are eventually lost and its last territory
supplies it with such a volume that it becomes a relatively huge
channel, the allantoic or umbilical vein.
 
In the Mammalia, although the umbilical veins precede the limb
buds in time of appearance, nevertheless here also, when the limbs
arise, they are at first drained into the umbilical veins.3
 
Dr. F. T. Lewis informs me that he had observed and demonstrated this drainage of the mammalian limbs into the umbilical
veins at the meeting of this association in 1903. Unfortunately no
record of this was made in the proceedings for that session, but Dr.
Lewis has been kind enough to send me sketches and notes made at
the time, showing this fact for rabbit embryos: I have recently
been able to confirm these findings on the human embryo also, so
 
that there is little reason to doubt its general applicability for the
Mammalia.
 
Many other prominent vessels in the body have been traced to a
similar origin from a capillary plexus, but time will now permit the
mention of only a few of these. In reconstructions of the vessels
of the head which have been made by various investigators, it appears
as if the tip of the anterior cardinal veins grew forwards in a dorsomedial position, in place to form the future sagittal sinus. It has
been possible to trace the formation of this vein quite completely in
injected mammalian embryos. In pig embryos five and six millimeters in length the primitive capillary plexus which grows up over
the sides of the mid and fore brain has not yet reached the dorsal
surface, though sprouts can be seen along its upper margin. By the
 
‘Evans. Am. Jour. Anat. IX, 2, 1909.
_,_aIginInq“n5 Suoerw
Sngu ' sin»:
 
fiG. 15 a.—Lateral view of upper portion of pig embryo 8 mm. long, showing location of mid dorsal non-vascular area, the extent of which has been
purposely exaggerated laterally. It will be noted that the capillaries have
fused dorsally over the mid brain and upper portion of the hind brain.
 
fiG. 15 b.—Dorsal view of fore and mid brain region of the pig of 8 mm.
shown in fig. 15 a, showing the limit of extension of the capillary plexus
here. The mesh work which has grown dorsally from either side halts
sharply in two parallel lines between which is the narrow non-vascular strip.
Anteriorly is seen the earliest indication of the superior sagittal sinus, which
is formed from either margin of the capillary mesh, and consequently at this
stage paired.
512 Herbert M. Evans.
 
time the embryo has attained a length of nine millimeters, the capillary mesh has covered the top of fore and ’tween-brain vesicles save
in the median line. Here the two meshes are as yet unfused, and
confront each other along two parallel lines, which thus bound a
median dorsal non-vascular strip, across which no connecting capillaries have ventured to grow. It is these two medial margins of the
plexus which, in the region of the cerebral hemispheres, are enlarged
to form the superior sagittal sinus, thus originally paired. (figs.
15a and 15b.)
 
One of the most beautiful and evident instances of the conversion
of a capillary mesh into an arterial channel is afiorded in the history
of the anterior spinal artery. Here too we have the best posible
axis of reference, for the mid-ventral line of the spinal cord is constant. On the ventral surface of the cord we can observe all the
steps in the first invasion of a plexus of capillaries there, their later
coalescence and enlargement in the mid-line as an irregular, illdefined channel, and eventually, the further conversion of this into
the very definite artery of regular contour and calibre-——the anterior
spinal. fig. 18 illustrates the development of this vessel in the pig.
 
I may be permitted to instance one more vessel, in this case one
of the very largest in the body, though not the earliest to develop,
which can easily be seen in the young embryo in the form of a
capillary mesh. I refer to the pulmonary artery. The endothelial
sprouts which later form this trunk spring from the sixth aortic
arch as true capillaries. In fact they reach the lung bud as a chain
of capillary meshes and retain this character for some time, as fig.
21 shows.
 
Besides the history of many individual blood vessels of the body,
these specimens have given weighty evidence towards a number of
general laws or phenomena of blood vessel development and these
will be briefly mentioned. They concern
 
(1) The presence always in the embryo, of a united vascular
system, so that the blood vessels form a single though irregularly
branched endothelial tree whose branches are in no case added after
 
an independent formation but arise by sprouting from the parent
trunks.
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 513
 
(2) The place and manner of spread of the first capillaries through
the body.
 
In discussing these briefly, we may say
 
(1) Serial sections of perfectly injected embryos show no evidences of vessels which have not received the injection mass and are
hence unconnected with the general system. Investigators, working
with uninjected material, have repeatedly reported such vessels.
Their findings are in all probability to be explained by a collapse of
the connecting vessels, since
 
a, injected specimens show these connecting vessels and
 
b, injected specimens fill other vessels previously unrevealed by
ordinary methods, thus furnishing a far more complete picture than
is otherwise obtainable.
 
The recent accounts by Riickert and Mollier in Hertwig’s Handbuch, on the subject of the first blood vessels are perhaps the most
conspicuous of the claims of vessel origin in situ. Their evidence
has come from Riickert’s studies of serial sections through selachian
embryos. His statements can doubtless be successfully attacked by
injecting selachian embryos and studying carefully the areas in
question.
 
With the light which such specimens have shed, the statement that
any vessels in the embryo arise at first unconnected with the vessels
in that region can be now challenged. If an instance be given it can
doubtless be speedily disproven, providing complete injections of
that area can be secured.
 
(2) The spread of the first vessels through the body. Whatever
may be the first source of the endothelium in the body of the embryo,
after the earliest stages, the injections have furnished a complete
history of the further capillary proliferation and outgrowth into
the tissues of the embryo.
 
Inasmuch as the first vessels lie somewhat centrally in the embryonic body, the general direction of growth is from center to periphery.
The center consists of the upper dorsal aortas together with the first
arch and Cuvier’s duct; the periphery comprises the various viscera
and central nervous system as well as the body wall, but the ultimate
periphery, the skin, is supplied late.
514 Herbert M. Evans.
 
In spreading outward, the capillaries do not grow uniformly in
all directions, thus successively invading various zones, but are
apparently governed by the character and needs of the various tissues,
reaching some of them early and some remarkably late. Hence there
are present during all the early stages in the embryo’s growth, vascular and non—vascular areas.
 
The method of injection reveals such a wealth of small vessels
whose existence we had not hitherto known, that at first thought one
is inclined to suspect the universal presence of the vascular net,
throughout the tissues of the embryo. This, however, is as much an
error as was the former notion of the scant extent of the embryonic
vessels. Injections made under the best possible conditions and afterwards explored in serial section have all shown the existence of definite non-vascular areas bordered by a margin of true capillary sprouts.
The position of such non-vascular areas is as constant as is that of
any vascular channel in the body and the more fundamental of
them are probably represented at homologous stages in all vertebrate
embryos.
 
Among the tissues, the central nervous system receives the first
investing capillary net, but even here the capillaries do not at once
surround the neural tube but occupy only the lateral aspect, gradually growing ventrally and dorsally. At the top of the brain, the
capillary mesh is some time in fusing from either side, so that there
exists here relatively late the narrow non-vascular strip in the middorsal line already mentioned. (fig. 15.) In the case of the hind
brain there is an especially conspicuous lack of much capillary proliferation in a dorsal direction, so that in comparatively late stages
of all vertebrate embryos the roof of the hind brain presents a
characteristic large non-vascular zone. Indeed, while in pig embryos ten millimeters in length the lateral capillary beds have completely fused dorsally, in the fore and mid-brain region, the nonvascular area on the top of the hind-brain persists until the embryo
has attained a length of over twenty millimeters. (figs. 16, 17a,
and 17b.) .
 
In the cord also the ventral and dorsal surfaces are invaded only
secondarily and are at first entirely non-vascular. The dorsal surBLOOD VESSELS OF VERTEBRATE EMBRYOS.
HERBERT M. EVANS.
 
c.h,
 
mg I:
 
 
 
 
Tum ANATOMICAL RECORD.-—-VOL. 111, No. 9.
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 515
 
face is bridged last of all and so the spinal axis presents for a time
the remarkable sight of a close capillary investment everywhere save
on its upper aspect, at the margins of which the two long parallel
borders of invading capillaries and their sprouts have halted sharply
in their spread. (fig. 19.) This narrow non-vascular zone is
maintained for a long time, but when the time comes for its obliteration, quite suddenly, capillary sprouts push out and bridge the gap.
This bridging occurs successively from above downwards and embryos
which have the dorsal surface thickly covered with capillaries in the
upper half will show the first bridging capillaries: in the caudal
region, as fig. 20 shows.
 
Other examples of vascular and non-vascular areas may be mentioned. The center of each sclerotome is, on its upper surface, supplied by a sheet of closely anastomosed capillaries; but the outer divisions of the sclerotome are not so supplied. There capillaries are
absent for a considerable time, so that the vertebral column presents
a succession of vascular and non-vascular zones, the former areas in
each case overlying the segmental vessels.
 
Furthermore, in the growth of the embryo, tissue at one time
permeated with a quite uniform capillary mesh may in its further
growth show a later difierentiation into vascular and non-vascular
areas.. This arrangement of its vascular mesh is of course coincident With corresponding changes in the nature of the tissue at various
 
Fm. 16.—Dorsal surface of bind and mid brain of a pig embryo 8.5 mm.
long, showing fusion\ of the primary head plexus across the mid line, except
the three non-vascular areas shown.
 
fiG. 17 a.—Dorsal surface of fore and mid-brain vesicles of injected chick
embryo of 32 omites.
 
F10. 17 b.-—Dorsal surface of fore and mid-brain vesicles of injected chick
embryo at _the end of the 3d day. c. h.=cerebral hemisphere; th.=thalainencephalon; m. b.=mid brain. In the earlier stage (fig. 17 a) the
primary head capillary plexus has fused across the mid dorsal line only at
one point, between the two divisions of the primitive _fore brain. In the later
stage the mesh quite completely invests the mid dorsal surface of the head,
but the cleft between the cerebral hemispheres is non-vascular, as is also the
zone surrounding the pineal organ. At the mesial margins of the two prominent lobes of the mid brain are seen the two mesencephalic veins which have
been formed from the plexus.
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fiG. 18.—The ventral surface of the spinal cord in the region of the first three thoracic segments in a series of injected pig embryos, showing the origin and development at the anterior spinal artery. )4 331,9. a, from an embryo 6
mm. long. No capillaries appear on the ventral surface. those seen invest the lateral surface and the ganglia. b.
from an embryo 8.5 mm. in length. Capillary sprouts are seen invading the ventral surface of the cord. c, from an
embryo 9 mm. long. The sprouts shown in the preceding figure have new extended as delicate straight parallel capillaries which bridge the mid line. so that the non-vascular area there is now obliterated. e, from an embryo 14 mm. long.
The processes of endothelial coalescence suggested in the preceding stage have resulted in the formation of an irregular fenestrated mid-ventral channel, in freer communication at intervals with the ventral branches of the segmental
vessels; f, from an embryo 15.5 mm. long, the mid~ventral channel has become narrower and its segmental aflerents
much stronger; g, from an embryo 28 mm. in length. The arterial character of the mid-ventral channel is now apparent, some of the segmental aflerents have disappeared and others have been much exaggerated in growth. The capillnries everywhere are of smaller caliber than those found in the earliest stages.
 
Herbert M. Evans.
BLOOD VESSELS OF VERTEBRATE EMBRYOS.
 
HERBERT M. EVANS.
 
           
     
 
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Tm: ANATOMICAL RECORD.-—-VOL. III, No. 9.
Blood Vessels of Vertebrate Embryos. 517
 
areas and it is often the most positive evidence of these changes. Thus
pre-cartilage and pre-muscle tissue are characteristically non-vascular
and wherever these condensations of the mesenchyme occur, they
 
 
fig. 2|
 
Fm. 21.—Camera lucida tracing of the fourth and sixth aortic arches of an
 
injected pig embryo 12 mm. long to show the early character of the pulmonary
arteries. P. A.=pulmonary arteries; L.=lungs; P. V.=pulmonary vein;
VI =sixth arch; IV: fourth arch; S. A.=subclavian artery.
 
form islands of tissue sharply circumscribed by capillaries but
uninvaded by the latter for a considerable interval. Of this the limb
buds furnish splendid examples, for the blastema of the arm, which is
at first furnished with a uniformly distributed capillary net, later
 
fiG. 19.——A series of views of the dorsal surface of the spinal cord at the
level of the lower cervical segments in injected pig embryos. a, from an
embryo 8 mm. in length. All the capillaries seen are limited to the lateral
surfaces of the cord and the spinal ganglia. b, from an embryo 10.5 mm.
long, showing the first capillary bridges across the cord in this region.
c, from an embryo 15 mm. long, showing the type of plexus established here.
d, from an embryo 20 mm. long, illustrating the farther growth of the plexus.
 
Fm. 20.—-Tail of an injected pig embryo, 13.5 mm. long. In the cervical
and thoracic regions, the plexus investing the dorsal surface of the cord
has become a close mesh; in this region, however, the flrst capillary bridges.
and, at the end, the first sprouts, are shown.
518 Herbert M. Evans.
 
begins to exhibit areas which the capillaries appear to avoid—areas
corresponding to the later masses of cartilage or muscle groups.
 
In most cases the capillaries tend to anastomose at greater or
lesser intervals forming a loose or close mesh and this plexus formation is doubtless one of their most characteristic and fundamental
properties. It has perhaps been better termed their tendency to
grow in every direction, yet influences often check this tendency suc
i cessfully and in some areas permit their growth from the very first
 
only in a certain definite direction. The best example of this is
furnished by the dorsal segmental vessels which, as is well known,
are rigidly governed in position by the presence of the primitive
segments, between which they course.
 
All of these examples clearly indicate that the behavior and character of the capillaries is even from the very first intimately influenced by the tissues into which they grow. A new set of problems
confronts us, problems which can aim more than ever before at the
causes at work in the developing organism, for now that We may
recognize with certainty vascular and non—vascular areas and the relation of each of these to the tissues, there come up at once questions
concerning the difierences in chemical nature of the tissues and a
closer determination of the real stimulant for vascular growth.
 
The story of the development of the vascular system is primarily
 
»the story of the spread of the capillaries, the form and relation of
 
their plexuses and the role of these in the elaboration of the trunks
of the adult.
 
We have to do always with the extension of a functioning system
not the blind outgrowth of vessels to their ultimate territory. Such
a system extends itself by capillary sprouts and as the capillary bed
increases, its supplying and draining channels, the arteries and the
veins, grow and rearrange themselves concordantly.
 
Received for publication July 6, 1909.

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