Neural - Cerebrum Development: Difference between revisions
mNo edit summary |
|||
(69 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{ | {{Header}} | ||
==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
[[File:Brain_ventricles_and_ganglia_development_03.jpg|thumb|300px|Human cerebrum and underlying ventricular development imaged by [[Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging|MRI]] | [[File:Stage_22_image_217.jpg|thumb|300px|Human embryo developing cortex (week 8, stage 22)]] | ||
[[File:Brain_ventricles_and_ganglia_development_03.jpg|thumb|300px|Human cerebrum and underlying ventricular development imaged by [[Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging|MRI]]{{#pmid:20108226|PMID20108226}}]] | |||
[[File:Dev anat 01.jpg|thumb]] | |||
[[File:Gray0677.jpg|thumb]] | |||
The brain as it is generally recognised. The cerebral cortex like other neural structures has a laminar | The brain ({{cerebral cortex}}, {{cerebrum}}, {{cortex}}) as it is generally recognised. Though the cerebrum includes the cerebral cortex and the subcortical structures (hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb). The adult cerebral cortex like other neural structures has a laminar organisation, the mammalian neocortex consists of six layers, while the reptilian and avian cortices have only three layers (equivalent to mammalian layers I, V and VI). The adult human cerebrum contains about 16,340,000,000 ± 2,170,000,000 (sixteen billion three hundred forty million) neurons and 60,840,000,000 ± 7,020,000,000 other cell types.{{#pmid:26418466|PMID26418466}} | ||
A simplified developmental sequence can be described as cell proliferation, cell migration, and finally cortical organization. In development, lamination occurs in an "inside-out" sequence earlier inside and later born neurons outside. The cortex is divided into areas which serve distinct functions including motor, sensory and cognitive processing. The lamination process requires a range of different signals including; Reelin (Reln, an extracellular protein), Disabled-1 (Dab1, an intracellular signaling molecule), and Cullin-5 (Cul5, an E3 ubiquitin ligase). | |||
The cortex progenitor cell types are either neuron-restricted or bipotent (neuron-glial) progenitors that generate glial-restricted progenitors at mid- and late neurogenesis. | |||
{{Neural Links 2}}<br> | |||
{{Neural Links}} | |||
<br> | |||
{{Historic Cortex}} | |||
{{Historic Neural}} | |||
== Some Recent Findings == | == Some Recent Findings == | ||
{| | {| | ||
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF" | |-bgcolor="F5FAFF" | ||
| | | | ||
* ''' | * '''c-Myc controls the fate of neural progenitor cells during cerebral cortex development'''{{#pmid:31625158|PMID31625158}} "The anatomical structure of the mammalian cerebral cortex is the essential foundation for its complex neural activity. This structure is developed by proliferation, differentiation, and migration of neural progenitor cells (NPCs), the fate of which is spatially and temporally regulated by the proper gene. This study was used in utero electroporation and found that the well-known oncogene c-Myc mainly promoted NPCs' proliferation and their transformation into intermediate precursor cells. Furthermore, the obtained results also showed that c-Myc blocked the differentiation of NPCs to postmitotic neurons, and the expression of telomere reverse transcriptase was controlled by c-Myc in the neocortex. These findings indicated c-Myc as a key regulator of the fate of NPCs during the development of the cerebral cortex.} | ||
* '''Development of | |||
* '''Dopamine as a growth differentiation factor in the mammalian brain'''{{#pmid:31571646|PMID31571646}} "The catecholamine, dopamine, plays an important role in the central nervous system of mammals, including executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward. Dysfunctions of the dopaminergic system lead to diseases of the brains, such as Parkinson's disease, Tourette's syndrome, and schizophrenia. In addition to its fundamental role as a neurotransmitter, there is evidence for a role as a growth differentiation factor during development. Recent studies suggest that dopamine regulates the development of γ-aminobutyric acidergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex. Moreover, in adult brains, dopamine increases the production of new neurons in the hippocampus, suggesting the promoting effect of dopamine on proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells and progenitor cells in the adult brains. In this mini-review, I center my attention on dopaminergic functions in the cortical interneurons during development and further discuss cell therapy against neurodegenerative diseases." | |||
* '''The LPA-LPA4 axis is required for establishment of bipolar morphology and radial migration of newborn cortical neurons'''{{#pmid:30217809|PMID30217809}} "Neurons in the developing neocortex undergo radial migration, a process that is coupled with their precise passage from multipolar to bipolar shape. The cell-extrinsic signals that govern this transition are, however, poorly understood. Here, we find that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling contributes to the establishment of a bipolar shape in mouse migratory neurons through LPA receptor 4 (LPA4)." | |||
* '''Development of the sensorimotor cortex in the human fetus: a morphological description'''{{#pmid:24972575|PMID24972575}} "Twenty-one human fetal brains from 13 to 28 gestational weeks were studied macroscopically to describe the morphological stages of sulcal and gyral development in the sensorimotor cortex....Four chronological stages of sensorimotor cortex development were defined: stage 1: appearance at 18-19 gestational weeks (GWs) of the inferior part of the central cerebral sulcus; stage 2: development of the pericentral lateral regions and the beginning of opercularization at 20-22 GWs; stage 3: development of parietal and temporal cortices and the covering of the postcentral insular region at 24-26 GWs; and finally stage 4: maturation of the central cerebral regions at 27-28 GWs." | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" | |||
! More recent papers | |||
|- | |||
| [[File:Mark_Hill.jpg|90px|left]] {{Most_Recent_Refs}} | |||
Search term: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Cerebral+Cortex+Development ''Cerebral Cortex Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Cerebral+Cortex+Embryology ''Cerebral Cortex Embryology''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Cerebrum+Development ''Cerebrum Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Cortex+Development ''Cortex Development''] | | |||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" | |||
! Older papers | |||
|- | |||
| {{Older papers}} | |||
* '''Local tissue growth patterns underlying normal fetal human brain gyrification quantified in utero'''{{#pmid:21414909|PMID21414909}} "we applied recent advances in fetal MRI motion correction and computational image analysis techniques to 40 normal fetal human brains covering a period of primary sulcal formation (20-28 gestational weeks). Growth patterns were mapped by quantifying tissue locations that were expanding more or less quickly than the overall cerebral growth rate, which reveal increasing structural complexity. We detected increased local relative growth rates in the formation of the precentral and postcentral gyri, right superior temporal gyrus, and opercula, which differentiated between the constant growth rate in underlying cerebral mantle and the accelerating rate in the cortical plate undergoing folding. Analysis focused on the cortical plate revealed greater volume increases in parietal and occipital regions compared to the frontal lobe. Cortical plate growth patterns constrained to narrower age ranges showed that gyrification, reflected by greater growth rates, was more pronounced after 24 gestational weeks. Local hemispheric volume asymmetry was located in the posterior peri-Sylvian area associated with structural lateralization in the mature brain." | |||
* '''Development of laminar organization of the fetal cerebrum'''{{#pmid:20981415|PMID20981415}} "Heads of 131 fetal specimens of 14-40 weeks gestational age (GA) were scanned by 3.0T MRI. Eleven fetal specimens of 14-27 weeks GA were scanned by 7.0T MRI. On T(1)-weighted 3.0T MRI, layers could be visualized at 14 weeks GA and appeared clearer after 18 weeks GA. On 7.0T MRI, four zones could be recognized at 14 weeks GA. During 15-22 weeks GA, when laminar organization appeared typical, seven layers including the periventricular zone and external capsule fibers could be differentiated, which corresponded to seven zones in histological stained sections. At 23-28 weeks GA, laminar organization appeared less typical, and borderlines among them appeared obscured. After 30 weeks GA, it disappeared and turned into mature-like structures. The developing lamination appeared the most distinguishable at the parieto-occipital part of brain and peripheral regions of the hippocampus. The migrating thalamocortical afferents were probably delineated as a high signal layer located at the lower, middle, and upper part of the subplate zone at 16-28 weeks GA on T(1)-weighted 3.0T MRI." | |||
* '''Correlation of diffusion tensor imaging with histology in the developing human frontal cerebrum'''{{#pmid:19622880|PMID19622880}} "Transient early cerebral laminar organization resulting from normal developmental events has been revealed in human beings through histology and imaging studies. DTI studies have postulated that the fractional anisotropy (FA)-based differentiation of different laminar structures reflects both differing cellular density over the glial fibers and fiber alignment in respective regions. The aim of this study was to correlate FA values in these transient zones with histology. Brain DTI was performed on 50 freshly aborted human fetuses with gestational ages (GA) ranging from 12 to 42 weeks. Regions of interest were placed on the cortical plate, subplate, intermediate and germinal matrix (GMx) zones of the frontal lobe to quantify FA values. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), neurofilament (NF) and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) immunohistochemical analyses were performed for the cortical plate, intermediate zone and GMx. In the cortical plate, a significant positive correlation was observed between FA values and percentage area of GFAP expression in fetuses <or=28 weeks of GA (r = 0.56, p = 0.01). FA values showed a significant positive correlation with the percentage area of NF expression in the intermediate zone (r = 0.54, p = 0.05). A significant positive correlation was also observed between FA and the number of NSE-positive cells per mm(2) in the GMx (r = 0.76, p < 0.01) and subplate (r = 0.59, p = 0.03) zones. The results of our study suggest that the FA can be used as noninvasive marker of neurodevelopmental events in the frontal lobe of human fetal brain." | |||
|} | |||
== Development Overview == | == Development Overview == | ||
Neuralation begins at the trilaminar embryo with formation of the notochord and somites, both of which underly the ectoderm and do not contribute to the nervous system, but are involved with patterning its initial formation. The central portion of the ectoderm then forms the neural plate that folds to form the neural tube, that will eventually form the entire central nervous system. | Neuralation begins at the trilaminar embryo with formation of the notochord and somites, both of which underly the ectoderm and do not contribute to the nervous system, but are involved with patterning its initial formation. The central portion of the ectoderm then forms the neural plate that folds to form the neural tube, that will eventually form the entire central nervous system. | ||
Line 19: | Line 55: | ||
{{ | {{Neural Table}} | ||
==Early Brain Vesicles== | ==Early Brain Vesicles== | ||
===Primary Vesicles=== | ===Primary Vesicles=== | ||
[[Image:CNS primary vesicles.jpg|600px]] | [[Image:CNS primary vesicles.jpg|600px]] | ||
===Secondary Vesicles=== | ===Secondary Vesicles=== | ||
[[Image:CNS secondary vesicles.jpg|600px]] | [[Image:CNS secondary vesicles.jpg|600px]] | ||
==Brain | ==Late Embryonic Brain== | ||
[[File:Stage_22_image_217.jpg|800px]] | |||
Human embryo developing cortex ([[Week 8]], [[Carnegie stage 22]]) | |||
* small embryo shows approximate level of section. | |||
* insert top right shows whole head section. | |||
* small shaded box on whole section shows region of large image. | |||
* layer thicknesses are shown in microns. | |||
==Early Fetal Brain== | |||
{| | |||
| [[File:Human-_fetal_week_10_head_A.jpg|400px]] | |||
| [[File:Human-_fetal_week_10_head_B.jpg|400px]] | |||
|- | |||
| [[File:Human-_fetal_week_10_head_C.jpg|400px]] | |||
| [[File:Human-_fetal_week_10_head_D.jpg|400px]] | |||
|} | |||
The above images are from a week 10 human fetus. | |||
==Fetal Brain== | |||
{| | |||
| [[File:Gray0654.jpg|250px]] | |||
| [[File:Gray0655.jpg|250px]] | |||
| [[File:Gray0658.jpg|250px]] | |||
|- | |||
| Fetal brain (3 months) | |||
| Fetal brain (4 months) | |||
| Fetal brain (5 months) | |||
|} | |||
Fissures are the major indentations, sulci (singular sulcus), that divide the brain surface into lobes and appear during fetal development as the brain grows. The images below show MRI analysis of the developing human fetal brain. | Fissures are the major indentations, sulci (singular sulcus), that divide the brain surface into lobes and appear during fetal development as the brain grows. The images below show MRI analysis of the developing human fetal brain. | ||
Line 39: | Line 107: | ||
:'''Links:''' [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] | :'''Links:''' [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] | ||
==Developmental Overview== | |||
[[File:Neural-development.jpg]] | |||
==Cortical Neurons== | ==Cortical Neurons== | ||
[[File:Telencephalon development signals.jpg|thumb|Telencephalon development signals{{#pmid:20668538|PMID20668538}} | |||
[[File:Neural-_cortex_Cajal_drawing_01.jpg|400px|]] | |||
Cortical layers in a historic drawing by Cajal. | |||
{| | |||
| [[File:Brain histology 01.jpg]] | |||
Adult mouse cortex | |||
| valign=top| | |||
'''I molecular layer''' - few neurons and mainly of extensions of apical dendrites and horizontally-oriented axons. | |||
'''II external granular layer''' - small pyramidal neurons and many stellate neurons. | |||
'''III external pyramidal layer''' - mainly small and medium-size pyramidal neurons, some non-pyramidal neurons with vertically-oriented intracortical axons. | |||
'''IV internal granular layer''' - different types of stellate and pyramidal neurons. | |||
'''V internal pyramidal layer''' - large pyramidal neurons. | |||
'''VI multiform layer''' - few large pyramidal neurons and many small spindle-like pyramidal and multiform neurons. | |||
|} | |||
===Cajal-Retzius Neurons=== | ===Cajal-Retzius Neurons=== | ||
Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells are some of the earliest generated cortical neurons arising from restricted domains of the pallial ventricular zone, and then migrate from the borders of the developing pallium to cover the cortical primordium. These early forming neurons then control the radial migration of neurons and the formation of cortical layers. In mice, this has been shown by these cells secreting the extracellular glycoprotein Reelin (Reln) and it has been suggested that these cells also fine tune multiple signaling pathways underlying the regulation of cortical regionalization. | Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells are some of the earliest generated cortical neurons arising from restricted domains of the pallial ventricular zone, and then migrate from the borders of the developing pallium to cover the cortical primordium. These early forming neurons then control the radial migration of neurons and the formation of cortical layers. In mice, this has been shown by these cells secreting the extracellular glycoprotein Reelin (Reln) and it has been suggested that these cells also fine tune multiple signaling pathways underlying the regulation of cortical regionalization.{{#pmid:20668538|PMID20668538}} | ||
==Molecular== | |||
[[File:Mouse- adult cortex.jpg|thumb|Mouse adult cortex{{#pmid:19812240|PMID19812240}}]] | |||
* '''{{Fgf}}r1 and {{Fgf}}r2''' - control excitatory cortical neuron development within the entire cerebral cortex.{{#pmid:20410112|PMID20410112}} | |||
* '''{{Fgf}}r2''' - proper formation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).{{#pmid:20410112|PMID20410112}} | |||
* '''MARCKS''' - (myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate protein) a cellular substrate for PKC modulates radial glial placement and expansion.{{#pmid:19666823|PMID19666823}} | |||
* '''MicroRNA''' - noncoding RNAs that regulate mRNA expression, highly expressed during development.{{#pmid:19914179|PMID19914179}}{{#pmid:20215343|PMID20215343}} | |||
==Corpus Callosum== | |||
The corpus callosum is the area of the brain which connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Maximum increase in thickness and width of the corpus callosum occurred between 19 and 21 weeks' gestation.{{#pmid:11778993|PMID11778993}} | |||
Human Timeline: | |||
* '''74 days''' - callosal axons appear. | |||
* '''84 days''' - subdivisions of the genu and splenium can be identified. | |||
* '''115 days''' - adult morphology is seen. | |||
===Agenesis of Corpus Callosum === | |||
Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a partial or complete absence of the corpus callosum, a rare cerebral malformation. | |||
:Links: [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/agenesis/agenesis.htm NINDS Information] | |||
==Cerebral Vascular Development== | |||
{| | |||
! Overview cartoon | |||
! Early vascular changes | |||
|- | |||
| [[File:Cerebral brain artery development 01.jpg|400px]] | |||
| [[File:Cerebral brain artery development 01.jpg|400px]] | |||
|} | |||
Chronological development of cerebral brain arteries initially with the rise of the internal carotid artery and subsequently with the development of the posterior circulation.{{#pmid:26060802|PMID26060802}} | |||
:'''Links:''' [[Cardiovascular System - Blood Vessel Development|Blood Vessel Development]] | [[Head Development]] | |||
==Animal Models== | |||
===Mouse Cortex=== | |||
{| | |||
| colspan=2|Timeline comparison of the migration and layer arrangement in neocortex and hippocampal CA1 during cortical development{{#pmid:25964735|PMID25964735}} | |||
|- | |||
| valign=top|[[File:Mouse cortex and hippocampus development 01.jpg|alt=Mouse cortex and hippocampus development|600px]] | |||
| (A) Neocortical neurons born between E10 and E12 radially migrate using the somal translocation mode. In contrast, late-born neurons transform their migration mode sequentially to multipolar migration, locomotion mode, and terminal translocation mode during their radial migration. These neurons form neocortical layers in a birthdate-dependent inside-out manner. | |||
(B) Hippocampal CA1 neurons born at late developmental stages change the migration mode to multipolar migration and then to the climbing mode. The migration mode used by early-born CA1 neurons remains unknown (somal translocation mode is a candidate). The layer arrangement in the Ammon's horn is thought to occur roughly in a birth-date dependent inside-out manner. | |||
PP, preplate; VZ, ventricular zone; MZ, marginal zone; CP, cortical plate; IZ, intermediated zone; MAZ, multipolar cell accumulation zone; WM, white matter; HP, hippocampal plate; SLM, stratum lacunosum-moleculare; SR, stratum radiatum; SP, stratum pyramidale; SO, stratum oriens. | |||
(text modified from original figure legend) | |||
|} | |||
==Abnormalities== | |||
===Agenesis of Corpus Callosum === | |||
Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a partial or complete absence of the corpus callosum, a rare cerebral malformation. | |||
:Links: [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/agenesis/agenesis.htm NINDS Information] | |||
===Hemimegalencephaly=== | |||
Increased proliferation | |||
===Heterotopia=== | |||
Ectopic migration | |||
===Lissencephaly=== | |||
A malformations derived from abnormal neuronal migration leading to agyria (convolutions of the cerebral cortex are not fully formed) and pachygyria (convolutions of the cerebral cortex unusually thick ). | |||
Pachygyria (Greek, ''pachy'' = "thick") | |||
===Microlissencephaly=== | |||
Decreased proliferation | |||
===Polymicrogyria=== | |||
Abnormal organization, numerous small gyri and a thick disorganized cortical plate lacking normal lamination, disruption of microtubule-based processes underlies a large spectrum of neuronal migration.{{#pmid:19465910|PMID19465910}} | |||
===Schizencephaly=== | |||
Abnormal organization | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
Line 50: | Line 257: | ||
===Reviews=== | ===Reviews=== | ||
{{#pmid:32062761}} | |||
{{#pmid:30574073}} | |||
{{#pmid:27056680}} | |||
{{#pmid:19732610}} | |||
{{#pmid:19763105}} | |||
===Articles=== | ===Articles=== | ||
{{#pmid:23727529}} | |||
{{#pmid:20161753}} | |||
{{#pmid:20040495}} | |||
{{#pmid:20410119}} | |||
{{#pmid:20410112}} | |||
{{#pmid:20215343}} | |||
===Search PubMed=== | ===Search PubMed=== | ||
Line 65: | Line 285: | ||
==External Links== | ==External Links== | ||
{{ | {{External Links}} | ||
* '''Zagreb Neuroembryological Collection''' - contains more than 500 prenatal human brains stained with various classical neurohistological, as well as modern histochemical and immunohistochemical methods. The bank is located at the Croatian Institute for Brain Research. http://www.hiim.hr/nova | * '''Zagreb Neuroembryological Collection''' - contains more than 500 prenatal human brains stained with various classical neurohistological, as well as modern histochemical and immunohistochemical methods. The bank is located at the Croatian Institute for Brain Research. http://www.hiim.hr/nova | ||
{{ | |||
{{Glossary}} | |||
{{Footer}} | |||
[[Category:Neural]] | [[Category:Neural]] | ||
[[Category:Cortex]] |
Revision as of 15:44, 9 March 2020
Embryology - 24 Apr 2024 Expand to Translate |
---|
Google Translate - select your language from the list shown below (this will open a new external page) |
العربية | català | 中文 | 中國傳統的 | français | Deutsche | עִברִית | हिंदी | bahasa Indonesia | italiano | 日本語 | 한국어 | မြန်မာ | Pilipino | Polskie | português | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਦੇ | Română | русский | Español | Swahili | Svensk | ไทย | Türkçe | اردو | ייִדיש | Tiếng Việt These external translations are automated and may not be accurate. (More? About Translations) |
Introduction
The brain (cerebral cortex, cerebrum, cortex) as it is generally recognised. Though the cerebrum includes the cerebral cortex and the subcortical structures (hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb). The adult cerebral cortex like other neural structures has a laminar organisation, the mammalian neocortex consists of six layers, while the reptilian and avian cortices have only three layers (equivalent to mammalian layers I, V and VI). The adult human cerebrum contains about 16,340,000,000 ± 2,170,000,000 (sixteen billion three hundred forty million) neurons and 60,840,000,000 ± 7,020,000,000 other cell types.[2]
A simplified developmental sequence can be described as cell proliferation, cell migration, and finally cortical organization. In development, lamination occurs in an "inside-out" sequence earlier inside and later born neurons outside. The cortex is divided into areas which serve distinct functions including motor, sensory and cognitive processing. The lamination process requires a range of different signals including; Reelin (Reln, an extracellular protein), Disabled-1 (Dab1, an intracellular signaling molecule), and Cullin-5 (Cul5, an E3 ubiquitin ligase).
The cortex progenitor cell types are either neuron-restricted or bipotent (neuron-glial) progenitors that generate glial-restricted progenitors at mid- and late neurogenesis.
Some Recent Findings
|
More recent papers |
---|
This table allows an automated computer search of the external PubMed database using the listed "Search term" text link.
More? References | Discussion Page | Journal Searches | 2019 References | 2020 References Search term: Cerebral Cortex Development | Cerebral Cortex Embryology | Cerebrum Development | Cortex Development | |
Older papers |
---|
These papers originally appeared in the Some Recent Findings table, but as that list grew in length have now been shuffled down to this collapsible table.
See also the Discussion Page for other references listed by year and References on this current page.
|
Development Overview
Neuralation begins at the trilaminar embryo with formation of the notochord and somites, both of which underly the ectoderm and do not contribute to the nervous system, but are involved with patterning its initial formation. The central portion of the ectoderm then forms the neural plate that folds to form the neural tube, that will eventually form the entire central nervous system.
- Early developmental sequence: Epiblast - Ectoderm - Neural Plate - Neural groove and Neural Crest - Neural Tube and Neural Crest
Neural Tube | Primary Vesicles | Secondary Vesicles | Adult Structures |
---|---|---|---|
week 3 | week 4 | week 5 | adult |
prosencephalon (forebrain) | telencephalon | Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, hippocampus, cerebrum (cortex), hypothalamus, pituitary | Basal Ganglia, lateral ventricles | |
diencephalon | epithalamus, thalamus, Subthalamus, pineal, posterior commissure, pretectum, third ventricle | ||
mesencephalon (midbrain) | mesencephalon | tectum, Cerebral peduncle, cerebral aqueduct, pons | |
rhombencephalon (hindbrain) | metencephalon | cerebellum | |
myelencephalon | medulla oblongata, isthmus | ||
spinal cord, pyramidal decussation, central canal |
Early Brain Vesicles
Primary Vesicles
Secondary Vesicles
Late Embryonic Brain
Human embryo developing cortex (Week 8, Carnegie stage 22)
- small embryo shows approximate level of section.
- insert top right shows whole head section.
- small shaded box on whole section shows region of large image.
- layer thicknesses are shown in microns.
Early Fetal Brain
The above images are from a week 10 human fetus.
Fetal Brain
Fetal brain (3 months) | Fetal brain (4 months) | Fetal brain (5 months) |
Fissures are the major indentations, sulci (singular sulcus), that divide the brain surface into lobes and appear during fetal development as the brain grows. The images below show MRI analysis of the developing human fetal brain.
- Links: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Developmental Overview
Cortical Neurons
[[File:Telencephalon development signals.jpg|thumb|Telencephalon development signals[10]
Cortical layers in a historic drawing by Cajal.
Cajal-Retzius Neurons
Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells are some of the earliest generated cortical neurons arising from restricted domains of the pallial ventricular zone, and then migrate from the borders of the developing pallium to cover the cortical primordium. These early forming neurons then control the radial migration of neurons and the formation of cortical layers. In mice, this has been shown by these cells secreting the extracellular glycoprotein Reelin (Reln) and it has been suggested that these cells also fine tune multiple signaling pathways underlying the regulation of cortical regionalization.[10]
Molecular
- Fgfr1 and Fgfr2 - control excitatory cortical neuron development within the entire cerebral cortex.[12]
- Fgfr2 - proper formation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).[12]
- MARCKS - (myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate protein) a cellular substrate for PKC modulates radial glial placement and expansion.[13]
- MicroRNA - noncoding RNAs that regulate mRNA expression, highly expressed during development.[14][15]
Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum is the area of the brain which connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Maximum increase in thickness and width of the corpus callosum occurred between 19 and 21 weeks' gestation.[16]
Human Timeline:
- 74 days - callosal axons appear.
- 84 days - subdivisions of the genu and splenium can be identified.
- 115 days - adult morphology is seen.
Agenesis of Corpus Callosum
Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a partial or complete absence of the corpus callosum, a rare cerebral malformation.
- Links: NINDS Information
Cerebral Vascular Development
Overview cartoon | Early vascular changes |
---|---|
Chronological development of cerebral brain arteries initially with the rise of the internal carotid artery and subsequently with the development of the posterior circulation.[17]
- Links: Blood Vessel Development | Head Development
Animal Models
Mouse Cortex
Timeline comparison of the migration and layer arrangement in neocortex and hippocampal CA1 during cortical development[18] | |
(A) Neocortical neurons born between E10 and E12 radially migrate using the somal translocation mode. In contrast, late-born neurons transform their migration mode sequentially to multipolar migration, locomotion mode, and terminal translocation mode during their radial migration. These neurons form neocortical layers in a birthdate-dependent inside-out manner.
PP, preplate; VZ, ventricular zone; MZ, marginal zone; CP, cortical plate; IZ, intermediated zone; MAZ, multipolar cell accumulation zone; WM, white matter; HP, hippocampal plate; SLM, stratum lacunosum-moleculare; SR, stratum radiatum; SP, stratum pyramidale; SO, stratum oriens. (text modified from original figure legend) |
Abnormalities
Agenesis of Corpus Callosum
Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a partial or complete absence of the corpus callosum, a rare cerebral malformation.
- Links: NINDS Information
Hemimegalencephaly
Increased proliferation
Heterotopia
Ectopic migration
Lissencephaly
A malformations derived from abnormal neuronal migration leading to agyria (convolutions of the cerebral cortex are not fully formed) and pachygyria (convolutions of the cerebral cortex unusually thick ).
Pachygyria (Greek, pachy = "thick")
Microlissencephaly
Decreased proliferation
Polymicrogyria
Abnormal organization, numerous small gyri and a thick disorganized cortical plate lacking normal lamination, disruption of microtubule-based processes underlies a large spectrum of neuronal migration.[19]
Schizencephaly
Abnormal organization
References
- ↑ Habas PA, Kim K, Rousseau F, Glenn OA, Barkovich AJ & Studholme C. (2010). Atlas-based segmentation of developing tissues in the human brain with quantitative validation in young fetuses. Hum Brain Mapp , 31, 1348-58. PMID: 20108226 DOI.
- ↑ Herculano-Houzel S, Catania K, Manger PR & Kaas JH. (2015). Mammalian Brains Are Made of These: A Dataset of the Numbers and Densities of Neuronal and Nonneuronal Cells in the Brain of Glires, Primates, Scandentia, Eulipotyphlans, Afrotherians and Artiodactyls, and Their Relationship with Body Mass. Brain Behav. Evol. , 86, 145-63. PMID: 26418466 DOI.
- ↑ Wang XL, Ma YX, Xu RJ, Ma JJ, Zhang HC, Qi SB, Xu JH, Qin XZ, Zhang HN, Liu CM, Chen JQ, Li B, Yang HL & Saijilafu. (2020). c-Myc controls the fate of neural progenitor cells during cerebral cortex development. J. Cell. Physiol. , 235, 4011-4021. PMID: 31625158 DOI.
- ↑ Ohira K. (2020). Dopamine as a growth differentiation factor in the mammalian brain. Neural Regen Res , 15, 390-393. PMID: 31571646 DOI.
- ↑ Kurabayashi N, Tanaka A, Nguyen MD & Sanada K. (2018). The LPA-LPA4 axis is required for establishment of bipolar morphology and radial migration of newborn cortical neurons. Development , 145, . PMID: 30217809 DOI.
- ↑ Afif A, Trouillas J & Mertens P. (2015). Development of the sensorimotor cortex in the human fetus: a morphological description. Surg Radiol Anat , 37, 153-60. PMID: 24972575 DOI.
- ↑ Rajagopalan V, Scott J, Habas PA, Kim K, Corbett-Detig J, Rousseau F, Barkovich AJ, Glenn OA & Studholme C. (2011). Local tissue growth patterns underlying normal fetal human brain gyrification quantified in utero. J. Neurosci. , 31, 2878-87. PMID: 21414909 DOI.
- ↑ Zhang Z, Liu S, Lin X, Teng G, Yu T, Fang F & Zang F. (2011). Development of laminar organization of the fetal cerebrum at 3.0T and 7.0T: a postmortem MRI study. Neuroradiology , 53, 177-84. PMID: 20981415 DOI.
- ↑ Trivedi R, Husain N, Rathore RK, Saksena S, Srivastava S, Malik GK, Das V, Pradhan M, Pandey CM & Gupta RK. (2009). Correlation of diffusion tensor imaging with histology in the developing human frontal cerebrum. Dev. Neurosci. , 31, 487-96. PMID: 19622880 DOI.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Griveau A, Borello U, Causeret F, Tissir F, Boggetto N, Karaz S & Pierani A. (2010). A novel role for Dbx1-derived Cajal-Retzius cells in early regionalization of the cerebral cortical neuroepithelium. PLoS Biol. , 8, e1000440. PMID: 20668538 DOI.
- ↑ Berbel P, Navarro D, Ausó E, Varea E, Rodríguez AE, Ballesta JJ, Salinas M, Flores E, Faura CC & de Escobar GM. (2010). Role of late maternal thyroid hormones in cerebral cortex development: an experimental model for human prematurity. Cereb. Cortex , 20, 1462-75. PMID: 19812240 DOI.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Stevens HE, Smith KM, Maragnoli ME, Fagel D, Borok E, Shanabrough M, Horvath TL & Vaccarino FM. (2010). Fgfr2 is required for the development of the medial prefrontal cortex and its connections with limbic circuits. J. Neurosci. , 30, 5590-602. PMID: 20410112 DOI.
- ↑ Weimer JM, Yokota Y, Stanco A, Stumpo DJ, Blackshear PJ & Anton ES. (2009). MARCKS modulates radial progenitor placement, proliferation and organization in the developing cerebral cortex. Development , 136, 2965-75. PMID: 19666823 DOI.
- ↑ Fineberg SK, Kosik KS & Davidson BL. (2009). MicroRNAs potentiate neural development. Neuron , 64, 303-9. PMID: 19914179 DOI.
- ↑ Kuwahara A, Hirabayashi Y, Knoepfler PS, Taketo MM, Sakai J, Kodama T & Gotoh Y. (2010). Wnt signaling and its downstream target N-myc regulate basal progenitors in the developing neocortex. Development , 137, 1035-44. PMID: 20215343 DOI.
- ↑ Achiron R & Achiron A. (2001). Development of the human fetal corpus callosum: a high-resolution, cross-sectional sonographic study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol , 18, 343-7. PMID: 11778993 DOI.
- ↑ Menshawi K, Mohr JP & Gutierrez J. (2015). A Functional Perspective on the Embryology and Anatomy of the Cerebral Blood Supply. J Stroke , 17, 144-58. PMID: 26060802 DOI.
- ↑ Hayashi K, Kubo K, Kitazawa A & Nakajima K. (2015). Cellular dynamics of neuronal migration in the hippocampus. Front Neurosci , 9, 135. PMID: 25964735 DOI.
- ↑ Jaglin XH, Poirier K, Saillour Y, Buhler E, Tian G, Bahi-Buisson N, Fallet-Bianco C, Phan-Dinh-Tuy F, Kong XP, Bomont P, Castelnau-Ptakhine L, Odent S, Loget P, Kossorotoff M, Snoeck I, Plessis G, Parent P, Beldjord C, Cardoso C, Represa A, Flint J, Keays DA, Cowan NJ & Chelly J. (2009). Mutations in the beta-tubulin gene TUBB2B result in asymmetrical polymicrogyria. Nat. Genet. , 41, 746-52. PMID: 19465910 DOI.
Reviews
Blaauw J & Meiners LC. (2020). The splenium of the corpus callosum: embryology, anatomy, function and imaging with pathophysiological hypothesis. Neuroradiology , , . PMID: 32062761 DOI.
Martínez-Cerdeño V & Noctor SC. (2018). Neural Progenitor Cell Terminology. Front Neuroanat , 12, 104. PMID: 30574073 DOI.
Fernández V, Llinares-Benadero C & Borrell V. (2016). Cerebral cortex expansion and folding: what have we learned?. EMBO J. , 35, 1021-44. PMID: 27056680 DOI.
Diaz AL & Gleeson JG. (2009). The molecular and genetic mechanisms of neocortex development. Clin Perinatol , 36, 503-12. PMID: 19732610 DOI.
Rakic P. (2009). Evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. , 10, 724-35. PMID: 19763105 DOI.
Articles
Zhan J, Dinov ID, Li J, Zhang Z, Hobel S, Shi Y, Lin X, Zamanyan A, Feng L, Teng G, Fang F, Tang Y, Zang F, Toga AW & Liu S. (2013). Spatial-temporal atlas of human fetal brain development during the early second trimester. Neuroimage , 82, 115-26. PMID: 23727529 DOI.
Shoemaker LD, Orozco NM, Geschwind DH, Whitelegge JP, Faull KF & Kornblum HI. (2010). Identification of differentially expressed proteins in murine embryonic and postnatal cortical neural progenitors. PLoS ONE , 5, e9121. PMID: 20161753 DOI.
Zimmer C, Lee J, Griveau A, Arber S, Pierani A, Garel S & Guillemot F. (2010). Role of Fgf8 signalling in the specification of rostral Cajal-Retzius cells. Development , 137, 293-302. PMID: 20040495 DOI.
Simó S, Jossin Y & Cooper JA. (2010). Cullin 5 regulates cortical layering by modulating the speed and duration of Dab1-dependent neuronal migration. J. Neurosci. , 30, 5668-76. PMID: 20410119 DOI.
Stevens HE, Smith KM, Maragnoli ME, Fagel D, Borok E, Shanabrough M, Horvath TL & Vaccarino FM. (2010). Fgfr2 is required for the development of the medial prefrontal cortex and its connections with limbic circuits. J. Neurosci. , 30, 5590-602. PMID: 20410112 DOI.
Kuwahara A, Hirabayashi Y, Knoepfler PS, Taketo MM, Sakai J, Kodama T & Gotoh Y. (2010). Wnt signaling and its downstream target N-myc regulate basal progenitors in the developing neocortex. Development , 137, 1035-44. PMID: 20215343 DOI.
Search PubMed
Search Pubmed: Cerebrum Embryology | Cerebrum Development
External Links
External Links Notice - The dynamic nature of the internet may mean that some of these listed links may no longer function. If the link no longer works search the web with the link text or name. Links to any external commercial sites are provided for information purposes only and should never be considered an endorsement. UNSW Embryology is provided as an educational resource with no clinical information or commercial affiliation.
- Zagreb Neuroembryological Collection - contains more than 500 prenatal human brains stained with various classical neurohistological, as well as modern histochemical and immunohistochemical methods. The bank is located at the Croatian Institute for Brain Research. http://www.hiim.hr/nova
Glossary Links
- Glossary: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Numbers | Symbols | Term Link
Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, April 24) Embryology Neural - Cerebrum Development. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Neural_-_Cerebrum_Development
- © Dr Mark Hill 2024, UNSW Embryology ISBN: 978 0 7334 2609 4 - UNSW CRICOS Provider Code No. 00098G