McMurrich1914 Chapter 15
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McMurrich JP. The Development Of The Human Body. (1914) P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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CHAPTER XV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Histogenesis of the Nervous System. - The entire central nervous system is derived from the cells lining the medullary groove, whose formation and conversion into the medullary canal has already been described (p. 72). When the groove is first formed, the cells lining it are somewhat more columnar in shape than those on either side of it, though like them they are arranged in a single layer; later they increase by mitotic division and arrange themselves in several layers, so that the ectoderm of the groove becomes very much thicker than that of the general surface of the body. At the same time the cell boundaries, which were originally quite distinct, gradually disappear, the tissue becoming a syncytium. While its tissue is in this condition the lips of the medullary groove unite, and the subsequent differentiation of the canal so formed differs somewhat in different regions, although a fundamental plan may be recognized. This plan is most readily perceived in the region which becomes the spinal cord, and may be described as seen in that region.
Throughout the earlier stages, the cells lining the inner wall of the medullary tube are found in active proliferation, some of the cells so produced arranging themselves with their long axes at right angles to the central canal (Fig. 227), while others, whose destiny is for the most part not yet determinable, and which therefore may be termed indifferent cells are scattered throughout the syncytium. At this stage a transverse section of the medullary tube shows it to be composed of two well-defined zones, an inner one immediately surrounding the central canal and composed of the indifferent cells and the bodies of the inner or ependymal cells, and an outer one consisting of branched prolongations of the syncytial cytoplasm. This
377
378 THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
outer layer is termed the marginal velum (Randschleier) (Fig. 227, m). The indifferent cells now begin to wander outward to form a definite layer, termed the mantle layer, lying between the marginal velum and the bodies of the ependymal cells (Fig. 228), and when this layer has become well established the cells composing it begin to divide and to differentiate into (1) cells termed neuroblasts, destined to become nerve-cells, and (2) others which appear to be supportive in character and are termed neuroglia cells (Fig. 228, B).
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Fig. 227. - Transverse Section through the Spinal Cord of a Pig Embryo of 30 mm., the Upper Part showing the Appearance produced by the Silver Method of Demonstrating the Neuroglia Fibers.
a, Ependyma of floor plate; b, boundary between mantle layer and marginal zone; cs, mesenchymal connective- tissue syncytium; ep, ependymal cells; i, ingrowth of connective tissue; m, marginal velum; mn, mantle layer; mv, mantle layer of floor plate; p, pia mater; r, neuroglia fibers. - (Hardesty.)
The latter are for the" most part small and are scattered among the neuroblasts, these, on the other hand, being larger and each early developing a single strong process which grows out into the marginal velum and is known as an axis-cylinder. At a later period the
THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
379
neuroblasts also give rise to other processes, termed dendrites, more slender and shorter than the axis-cylinders, branching repeatedly, and, as a rule, not extending beyond the limits of the mantle layer. In connection with the neuroglia cells peculiar neuroglia fibrils develop very much in the same way as the fibers are formed in mesenchymal connective tissue. That is to say, they are formed from the peripheral portions of the cytoplasm of the neuroglial and ependymal cells. But since these cells are connected i together to form a syncytium the fibrils are not confined to the territories of the indi
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Fig. 228. - Diagrams showing the Development of the Mantle Layer in the Spinal Cord. The circles, indifferent cells; circles with dots, neuroglia cells; shaded cells, germinal cells; circles with cross, germinal cells in mitosis; black cells, nerve-cells. - (Schaper.) vidual cells, but may extend far beyond these, passing in the syncytium from the territory of one neuroglial cell to another, many of those, indeed, arising in connection with the ependymal cells extending throughout the entire thickness of the medullary wall (Fig. 227). The fibrils branch abundantly and form a supportive network extending through all portions of the central nervous system. The axis-cylinder processes of the majority of the neuroblasts on reaching the marginal velum bend upward or downward and, after
3 8o
THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
traversing a greater or less length of the cord, re-enter the mantle layer and terminate by dividing into numerous short branches which come into relation with the dendrites of adjacent neuroblasts. The processes of certain cells situated in the ventral region of the mantle zone pass, however, directly through the marginal velum out into the surrounding tissues and constitute the ventral nerveroots (Fig. 231).
The dorsal nerve-roots have a very different origin. In embryos
of about 2.5 mm., in which the medullary canal is only partly closed (Fig. 53), the cells which lie along the line of transition between the lips of the groove and the general ectoderm form a distinct ridge readily recognized in sections and termed the neural crest (Fig. 229, A). When the lips of the groove fuse together the cells of the crest unite to form a wedge-shaped mass, completing the closure of the canal (Fig. 229, B), and later proliferate so as to extend outward over the surface of the canal (Fig. 229, C). Since this proliferation is most active in the regions of the crest which correspond to the mesodermic somites there is formed a series of cell masses, arranged segmentally and situated in the mesenchyme at the sides of the medullary canal (Fig. 214). These cell masses represent the dorsal root ganglia, and certain of their constituent cells, which may also be termed neuroblasts, early assume a fusiform shape and send out a process from each extremity. One of these processes, the axiscylinder, grows inward toward the medullary canal and penetrates its
Fig. 229. - Three Sections through the Medullary Canal of an Embryo of 2.5 mm. - (vonLenhossek.)
THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 381
marginal velum, and, after a longer or shorter course in this zone, enters the mantle layer and comes into contact with the dendrites of some of the central neuroblasts. The other process extends peripherally and is to be regarded as an extremely elongated dendrite. The processes from the cells of each ganglion aggregate to form a nerve, that formed by the axis-cylinders being the posterior root of a spinal nerve, while that formed by the dendrites soon unites with the ventral nerve-root of the corresponding segment to form the main stem of a spinal nerve.
There is thus a very important difference in the mode of development of the two nerve-roots, the axis-cylinders of the ventral roots
Fig. 230. - Cells from the Gasserian Ganglion of a Guinea-pig Embryo. a, Bipolar cell; b and c, transitional stages to d, T-shaped cells. - (von Gehuchten.) arising from cells situated in the wall of the medullary canal and growing outward (centrif ugally) , while those of the dorsal root spring from cells situated peripherally and grow inward (centripetally) toward the medullary canal. In the majority of the dorsal root ganglia the points of origin of the two processes of each bi-polar cell gradually approach one another (Fig. 230, b) and eventually come to rise from a common stem, a process of the cell-body, which thus assumes a characteristic T form (Fig. 230, d).
From what has been said it will be seen that each axis-cylinder is an outgrowth from a single neuroblast and is part of its cell-body, as are also the dendrites. Another view has, however, been advanced to the
382 THE HISTOGENESIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
effect that the nerve fibers first appear as chains of cells and that the axiscylinders, being differentiated from the cytoplasm of the chains, are really multicellular products. Many difficulties stand in the way of the acceptance of this view and recent observations, both histogenetic (Cajal) and experimental (Harrison), tend to confirm the unicellular origin of the axis-cylinders. The embryological evidence therefore goes to support the neurone theory, which regards the entire nervous system as composed of definite units, each of which corresponds to a single cell and is termed a neurone.
By the development of the axis-cylinders which occupy the meshes of the marginal velum, that zone increases in thickness and comes to consist principally of nerve-fibers, while the cell-bodies of the neurones of the cord are situated in the mantle zone. No such definite distinction of color in the two zones as exists in the adult is, however, noticeable until a late period of development, the medullary sheaths, which give to the nerve-fibers their white appearance not beginning to appear until the fifth month and continuing to form from that time onward until after birth. The origin of the myelin which composes the medullary sheaths is as yet uncertain, although the more recent observations tend to show that it is picked out from the blood and deposited around the axis-cylinders in some manner not yet understood. Its appearance is of importance as being associated with the beginning of the functional activity of the nerve-fibers.
In addition to the medullary sheaths the majority of the fibers of the peripheral nervous system are provided with primitive sheaths, which are lacking, however, to the fibers of the central system. They are formed by cells which wander out from the dorsal root-ganglia and are therefore of ectodermal origin. Frog larvae deprived of their neural crests at an early stage of development produce ventral nerve-fibers altogether destitute of primitive sheaths (Harrison).
Various theories have been advanced to account for the formation of the medullary sheaths. It has been held that the myelin is formed at the expense of the outermost portions of the axis-cylinders themselves (von Kolliker), and on the other hand, it has been regarded as an excretion of the cells which compose the primitive sheaths surrounding the fibers
THE SPINAL CORD 383
(Ranvier) , a theory which is, however, invalidated by the fact that myelin is formed around the fibers of the central nervous system which possess no primitive sheaths. As stated above, the more recent observations (Wlassak) indicate its exogenous origin.
It has been seen that the central canal is closed in the mid-dorsal line by a mass of cells derived from the neural crest. These cells do not take part in the formation of the mantle layer, but become completely converted into ependymal tissue, and the same is true of the cells situated in the mid-ventral line of the canal. In these two regions, known as the roof -plate and floor -plate respectively, the wall of the canal has a characteristic structure and does not share to any great extent in the increase of thickness which distinguishes the other regions (Fig. 231). In the lateral walls of the canal there is also noticeable a differentiation into two regions, a dorsal one standing in relation to the ingrowing fibers from the dorsal root ganglia and known as the dorsal zone, and a ventral one, the ventral zone, similarly related to the ventral nerve-roots. In different regions of the medullary tube these zones, as well as the roof- and floor-plates, undergo different degrees of development, producing peculiarities which may now be considered.
Trie Development of the Spinal Cord. - Even before the lips of the medullary groove have met a marked enlargement of the anterior portion of the canal is noticeable, the region which will become the brain being thus distinguished from the more posterior portion which will be converted into the spinal cord. When the formation of the mesodermic somites is completed, the spinal cord terminates at the level of the last somite, and in this region still retains its connection with the ectoderm of the dorsal surface of the body; but in that portion of the cord which is posterior to the first coccygeal segment the histological differentiation does not proceed beyond the stage when the walls consist of several layers of similar cells, the formation of neuroblasts and nerve-roots ceasing with the segment named. After the fourth month the more differentiated portion elongates at a much slower rate than the surrounding tissues and so appears to recede up the spinal canal, until its
384 THE SPINAL CORD
termination is opposite the second lumber vertebra. The less differentiated portion, which retains its connection with the ectoderm until about the fifth month, is, on the other hand, drawn out into a slender filament whose cells degenerate during the sixth month, except in its uppermost part, so that it comes to be represented throughout the greater part of its extent by a thin cord composed of pia mater. This cord is the structure known in the adult as the filum terminate, and lies in the center of a leash of nerves occupying the lower part of the spinal canal and termed the cauda equina. The existence of the cauda is due to the recession of the cord which necessitates for the lower lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves, a descent through the spinal canal for a greater or less distance, before they can reach the intervertebral foramina through which they make their exit.
In the early stages of development the central canal of the cord is quite large and of an elongated oval form, but later it becomes somewhat rhomboidal in shape (Fig. 231, A), the lateral angles marking the boundaries between the dorsal and ventral zones. As development proceeds the sides of the canal in the dorsal region gradually approach one another and eventually fuse, so that this portion of the canal becomes obliterated (Fig. 231, B) and is indicated by the dorsal longitudinal fissure in the adult cord, the central canal of which corresponds to the ventral portion only of the embryonic cavity. While this process has been going on both the roofand the floor-plate have become depressed below the level of the general surface of the cord, and by a continuance of the depression of the floor-plate - a process really due to the enlargement and consequent bulging of the ventral zone - the anterior median fissure is produced, the difference between its shape and that of the dorsal fissure being due to the difference in its development.
The development of the mantle layer proceeds at first more rapidly in the ventral zone than in the dorsal, so that at an early stage (Fig. 231, A) the anterior column of gray matter is much more pronounced, but on the development of the dorsal nerve-roots the formation of neuroblasts in the dorsal zone proceeds apace, resulting
THE SPINAL CORD
385
in the formation of a dorsal column. A small portion of the zone, situated between the point of entrance of the dorsal nerve-roots and the roof-plate, fails, however, to give rise to neuroblasts and is entirely converted into ependyma. This represents the future funiculus gracilis (fasciculus of Goll) (Fig. 231, A, cG), and at the point of entrance of the dorsal roots into the cord a well-marked oval bundle of fibers is formed (Fig. 231, A, ob) which, as develop
Fig. 231. - Transverse Sections through the Spinal Cords of Embryos .of (A) about Four and a Half Weeks and (B) about Three Months'. cB, Fasciculus of Burdach; cG, fasciculus of Goll; dh, dorsal column; dz, dorsal zone; fp, floor-plate; ob, oval bundle; rp, roof-plate; vh, ventral column; vz, ventral zone. - (His.) ment proceeds, creeps dorsally over the surface of the dorsal horn until it meets the lateral surface of the fasciculus of Goll, and, its further progress toward the median line being thus impeded, it insinuates itself between that fasciculus and the posterior horn to form the funiculus cuneatus (fasciculus of Burdach) (Fig. 231, B, cB).
Little definite is as yet known concerning the development of the other fasciculi which are recognizable in the adult cord, but it seems
25
3 86
THE BRAIN
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certain that the lateral and anterior cerebro-spinal (pyramidal) fasciculi are composed of fibers which grow downward in the meshes of the marginal velum from neuroblasts situated in the cerebral cortex, while the cerebellospinal (direct cerebellar) fasciculi and the fibers of the ground-bundles have their origin from cells of the mantle layer of the cord.
The myelination of the fibers of the spinal cord begins between the fifth and sixth months and appears first in the funiculi cuneati, and about
a month later in the funiculi graciles. The myelination of the great motor paths, the lateral and anterior cerebro-spinal fasciculi, is the last to develop, appearing toward the end of the ninth month of fetal life.
The Development of the Brain.
- The enlargement of the anterior portion of the medullary canal does not take place quite uniformly, but is less along two transverse lines than else where, so that the brain region early becomes divided into three primary vesicles which undergo further differentiation as follows. Upon each side of the anterior vesicle an evagination appears and becomes converted into a club-shaped structure attached to the ventral portion of the vesicle by a pedicle. These evaginations (Fig. 232, op) are known as the optic evaginations, and being concerned in the formation of the eye will be considered in the succeeding chapter. After their formation the antero-lateral portions of the vesicle become bulged out into two protuberances (h) which rapidly increase in size and give rise, eventually to the two cerebral hemispheres, which form, together with the portion of the vesicle which lies between them, what is termed the telencephalon or forebrain, the remainder of the vesicle giving rise to what is known as
Fig. 232. - Reconstruction of the Brain of an Embryo of 2.15 MM.
h, Hemisphere; i, isthmus; m, mesencephalon; mf, mid-brain flexure; mt, metencephalon ; myl, myelencephalon; nf, nape flexure; ot, otic capsule; op, optic evagination; t, diencephalon. - (His.)
THE BRAIN
387
the diencephalon or Hween-brain (Fig. 232, /). The middle vesicle is bodily converted into the mesencephalon or mid-brain (m), but the posterior vesicle differentiates so that three parts may be recognized : (1) a rather narrow portion which immediately succeeds the midbrain and is termed the isthmus (i); (2) a portion whose roof and floor give rise to the cerebellum and pons respectively, and which is termed the metencephalon or hind-brain (mi) ; and (3) a terminal portion which is known as the medulla oblongata, or, to retain a consistent nomenclature, the myelencephalon or after-brain (my). From each of these six divisions definite structures arise whose relations to the secondary divisions and to the primary vesicles may be understood from the following table and from the annexed figure (Fig. 233), which represents a median longitudinal section of the brain of a fetus of three months.
3rd Vesicle
Myelencephalon
Metencephalon
Isthmus
Medulla oblongata (I) .
/ Pons (II 1).
^ Cerebellum (II 2).
SBrachia conjunctiva (III). Cerebral peduncles (posterior portion) .
2nd Vesicle Mesencephalon
Cerebral peduncles (anterior portion) (IV 1). Corpora quadrigemina (IV 2).
1st Vesicle <
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
Pars mammillaris (V 1). Thalamus (V 2). Epiphysis (V 3).
Infundibulum (VI 1). Corpus striatum (VI 2). Olfactory bulb (VI 3). Hemispheres (VI 4).
But while the walls of the primary vesicles undergo this complex differentiation, their cavities retain much more perfectly their original relations, only that of the first vesicle sharing to any great extent the modifications of the walls.
388 THE BRAIN
The cavity of the third vesicle persists in the adult as the fourth ventricle, traversing all the subdivisions of the vesicle; that of the second, increasing but little in height and breadth, constitutes the aquaductus cerebri; while that of the first vesicle is continued into the cerebral hemispheres to form the lateral ventricles, the remainder of it constituting the third ventricle, which includes the cavity of the median portion of the telencephalon as well as the entire cavity of the diencephalon.
During the differentiation of the various divisions of the brain certain flexures appear in the roof and floor, and to a certain extent
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Fig. 233. - Median Longitudinal Section of the Brain of an Embryo of the Third Month. - (His.)
correspond with those already described as occurring in the embryo. The first of these flexures to appear occurs in the region of the midbrain, the first vesicle being bent ventrally until it comes to lie at practically a right angle with the axis of the mid-brain. This may be termed the mid-brain flexure (Fig. 232, mf) and corresponds with the head-bend of the embryo. The second flexure occurs in the region of the medulla oblongata and is known as the nape flexure (Fig. 232, nf); it corresponds with the similarly named bend of the embryo and is produced by a bending ventrally of the entire head, so
THE MYELENCEPHALON 389
that the axis of the mid-brain comes to lie almost at right angles with that of the medulla and that of the first vesicle parallel with it. Finally, a third flexure occurs in the region of the metencephalon and is entirely peculiar to the nervous system; it consists of a bending ventrally of the floor of the hind-brain, the roof of this portion of the brain not being affected by it, and it may consequently be known as the pons flexure (Fig. 233).
In the later development the pons flexure practically disappears, owing to the development in this region of the transverse fibers and nuclei of the pons, but the mid-brain and nape flexures persist, though greatly reduced in acuteness, the axis of the anterior portion of the adult brain being inclined to that of the medulla at an angle of about 134 degrees.
The Development of the Myelencephalon. - In its posterior portion the myelencephalon closely resembles the spinal cord and has a very similar development. More anteriorly, however, the roof-plate (Fig. 234, rp) widens to form an exceedingly thin membrane, the posterior velum; with the broadening of the roof-plate there is associated a broadening of the dorsal portion of the brain cavity, the dorsal and ventral zones bending outward, until, in the anterior portion of the after-brain, the margins of the dorsal zone have a lateral position, and are, indeed, bent ventrally to form a reflected lip (Fig. 234, I). The portion of the fourth ventricle contained in this division of the brain becomes thus converted into a broad shallow cavity, whose floor is formed by the ventral zones separated in the median line by a deep groove, the floor of which is the somewhat thickened floor-plate. About the fourth month there appears in the roof-plate a transverse groove into which the surrounding mesenchyme dips, and, as the groove deepens in later stages, the mesenchyme contained within it becomes converted into blood-vessels, forming the chorioid plexus of the fourth ventricle, a structure which, as may be seen from its development, does not lie within the cavity of the ventricle, but is separated from it by the portion of the roofplate which forms the floor of the groove.
In embryos of about 9 mm. the differentiation of the dorsal
39o
THE MYELENCEPHALON
and ventral zones into ependymal and mantle layers is clearly visible (Fig. 234), and in the ventral zone the marginal velum is also well developed. Where the fibers from the sensory ganglion of the vagus nerve enter the dorsal zone an oval area (Fig. 234, fs) is to be seen which is evidently comparable to the oval bundle of the cord and consequently with the fasciculus of Burdach. It gives rise to the solitary fasciculus of adult anatomy, and in embryos of 11 to 13 mm. it becomes covered in by the fusion of the reflected lip of the dorsal zone with the sides of the myelencephalon, this fusion, at the same time, drawing the margins of the roof-plate ventrally to form a
Fig. 234. - Transverse Section through the Medulla Oblongata of an Embryo of 9.1 mm.
dz, Dorsal zone; fp, floor-plate; /s, fasciculus solitarius; I, lip; rp, roof-plate; vz, ventral
zone; X and XII, tenth and twelfth nerves. - (His.)
secondary lip (Fig. 235). Soon after this a remarkable migration ventrally of neuroblasts of the dorsal zone begins. Increasing rapidly in number the migrating cells pass on either side of the solitary fasciculus toward the territory of the ventral zone, and, passing ventrally to the ventral portion of the mantle layer, into which fibers have penetrated and which becomes the formatio reticularis (Fig. 235, fr), they differentiate to form the olivary body (ol).
The thickening of the floor-plate gives opportunity for fibers to pass across the median line from one side to the other, and this opportunity is taken advantage of at an early stage by the axis-cylin
THE MYELENCEPHALON
39 1
ders of the neuroblasts of the ventral zone, and later, on the establishment of the olivary bodies, other fibers, descending from the cerebellum, decussate in this region to pass to the olivary body of the opposite side. In the lower part of the medulla fibers from the neuroblasts of the nuclei gracilis and cuneatus, which seem to be
ol z* Fig. 235. - Transverse Section through the Medulla Oblongata of an Embryo of about Eight Weeks.
av, Ascending root of the trigeminus ;fr, reticular formation; ol, olivary body; sf, solitary
fasciculus; tr, restiform body; XII, hypoglossal nerve. - (His.)
developments from the mantle layer of the dorsal zone, also decussate in the substance of the floor-plate; these fibers, known as the arcuate fibers, pass in part to the cerebellum, associating themselves with fibers ascending from the spinal cord and with the olivary fibers to form a round bundle situated in the dorsal portion of the marginal velum and known as the restiform body (Fig. 235, tr).
The principal differentiations of the zones of the myelencephalon may be stated in tabular form as follows:
Roof-plate Posterior velum.
(Nuclei of termination of sensory roots of cranial nerves. Nuclei gracilis and cuneatus. The olivary bodies.
. ( Nuclei of origin of the motor roots of cranial nerves.
Ventral zones < _,, ...
I I he reticular formation.
Foor-plate The median raphe.
39 2
THE CEREBELLUM
The Development of the Metencephalon and Isthmus. - Our knowledge of the development of the metencephalon, isthmus, and mesencephalon is by no means as complete as is that of the myelencephalon. The pons develops as a thickening of the portion of the brain floor which forms the anterior wall of the pons flexure, and its transverse fibers are well developed by the fourth month (Mihalkovicz), but all details regarding the origin of the pons nuclei are as yet wanting. If one may argue from what occurs in the myelencephalon, it seems probable that the reticular formation of the metencephalon is derived from the ventral zone, and that the median raphe represents the floor-plate. Furthermore, the relations of the pons nuclei to the reticular formation on the one hand, and its connection by means of
Fig. 236. - A, Dorsal View of the Brain or a Rabbit Embryo of 16 mm.; B, Median
Longitudinal Section of a Calf Embryo of 3 cm.
c, Cerebellum; m, mid-brain. - (Mihalkovicz?)
the transverse pons fibers with the cerebellum on the other, suggest the possibility that they may be the metencephalic representatives of the olivary bodies and are formed by a migration ventrally of neuroblasts from the dorsal zones, such a migration having been observed to occur (Essick).
The cerebellum is formed from the dorsal zones and roof-plate of the metencephalon and is a thickening of the tissue immediately anterior to the front edge of the posterior velum. This latter structure has in early stages a rhomboidal shape (Fig. 236, A) which causes the cerebellar thickening to appear at first as if composed of two lateral portions inclined obliquely toward one another. In reality, however, the thickening extends entirely across the roof of
THE CEREBELLUM
393
the brain (Fig. 236, B), the roof-plate probably being invaded by cells from the dorsal zones and so giving rise to the vermis, while the lobes are formed directly from the dorsal zones. During the second month a groove appears on the ventral surface of each lobe, marking out an area which becomes the flocculus, and later, during the third month, transverse furrows appear upon the vermis dividing it into five lobes, and later still extend out upon the lobes and increase in number to produce the lamellate structure characteristic of the cerebellum.
The histogenetic development of the cerebellum at first proceeds along the lines which have already been described as typical, but after the development of the mantle layer the cells lining the greater portion of the cavity of the ventricle
rease to rrmltinlv onlv those FlG - 237- - Diagram Representing the cease to multiply, oniy tnose DifferenT iation of the Cerebellar Cells.
which are situated in the roof- The circles, indifferent cells; circles with
plate of the metencephalon d °f ' n< r ur . g lia c f s > shaded c ? lls : g™. al
1 r cells; circles with cross, germinal cells in
and along the line of junction mitosis; black cells, nerve-cells. L, Lateral
. , , ,, ,i • i • recess; M, median furrow, and R, floor of IV,
of the cerebellar thickening fourth ven tricle. - (Schaper.) with the roof-plate continuing
to divide. The indifferent cells formed in these regions migrate outward from the median line and forward in the marginal velum to form a superficial layer, known as the epithelioid layer, and cover the entire surface of the cerebellum (Fig. 237). The cells of this layer, like those of the mantle, differentiate into neuroglia cells and neuroblasts, the latter for the most part migrating centrally at a later stage to mingle with the cells of the mantle layer and to become transformed into the granular cells of the cerebellar cortex. The neuroglia cells remain at the surface, however, forming the principal constituent of the outer or, as it is now termed, the molecular layer of the cortex, and into this the dendrites of the Purkinje cells,
394 THE isthmus probably derived from the mantle layer, project. The migration of the neuroblasts of the epithelial layer is probably completed before birth, at which time but few remain in the molecular layer to form the stellate cells of the adult. The origin of the dentate and other nuclei of the cerebellum is at present unknown, but it seems probable that they arise from cells of the mantle layer.
The nerve-fibers which form the medullary substance of the cerebellum do not make their appearance until about the sixth month, when they are to be found in the ependymal tissue on the inner surface of the layer of granular cells. Those which are not commissural or associative in function converge to the line of junction of the cerebellum with the pons, and there pass into the marginal velum of the pons, myelencephalon, or isthmus as the case may be.
The dorsal surface of the isthmus is at first barely distinguishable from the cerebellum, but as development proceeds its roof-plate undergoes changes similar to those occurring in the medulla oblongata and becomes converted into the anterior velum. In the dorsal portion of its marginal velum fibers passing to and from the cerebellum appear and form the brachia conjunctiva, while ventrally fibers, descending from the more anterior portions of the brain, form the cerebral peduncles. Nothing is at present known as to the history of the gray matter of this division of the brain, although it may be presumed that its ventral zones take part in the formation of the tegmentum, while from its dorsal zones the nuclei of the brachia conjunctiva are possibly derived.
The following table gives the origin of the principal structures of the metencephalon and isthmus:
Metencephalon. Isthmus.
/ Posterior velum. Anterior velum.
^ Vermis of cerebellum.
Dorsal zones.
Lobes of cerebellum. Brachia conjunctiva.
Flocculi.
Nuclei of termination of sensory roots of cranial nerves. Pons nuclei.
THE MESENCEPHALON 395
Metencephalon. Isthmus.
f Nuclei of origin of motor Posterior part of cerebral
Ventral zones -j roots of cranial nerves. peduncles.
[ Reticular formation. Posterior part of tegmentum.
Floor-plate Median raphe. Median raphe.
The Development of the Mesencephalon. - Our knowledge of the development of this portion of the brain is again very imperfect. During the stages when the flexures of the brain are well marked (Figs. 232 and 233) it forms a very prominent structure and possesses for a time a capacious cavity. Later, however, it increases in size less rapidly than adjacent parts and its walls thicken, the roofand floor-plates as well as the zones, and, as a result, the cavity becomes the relatively smaller canal-like cerebral aquaeduct. In the marginal velum of its ventral zone fibers appear at about the third month, forming the anterior portion of the cerebral peduncles, and, at the same time, a median longitudinal furrow appears upon the dorsal surface, dividing it into two lateral elevations which, in the fifth month, are divided transversely by a second furrow and are thus converted from corpora bigemina (in which form they are found in the lower vertebrates) into corpora quadrigemina.
Nothing is known as to the differentiation of the gray matter of the dorsal and ventral zones of the mid-brain. From the relation of the parts in the adult it seems probable that in addition to the nuclei of origin of the oculomotor and trochlear nerves, the ventral zones give origin to the gray matter of the tegmentum, which is the forward continuation of the reticular formation. Similarly it may be supposed that the corpora quadrigemina are developments of the dorsal zones, as may also be the red nuclei, whose relations to the brachia conjunctiva suggest a comparison with the olivary bodies and the nuclei of the pons.
A tentative scheme representing the origin of the mid-brain structures may be stated thus:
Roof -plate (?)
J Corpora quadrigemina. .LJorsal zones. ...... \ .
^ Red nuclei.
[ Nuclei of origin of the third and fourth nerves. Ventral zones \ Anterior part of tegmentum.
[ Anterior part of cerebral peduncles. Floor-plate Median raphe.
396
THE DIENCEPHALON
The Development of the Diencephalon. - A transverse section through the diencephalon of an embryo of about five weeks (Fig. 238) shows clearly the differentiation of this portion of the brain into the typical zones, the roof-plate (rp) being represented by a thinwalled, somewhat folded area, the floor-plate (fp) by the tissue forming the floor of a well-marked ventral groove, while each lateral wall is divided into a dorsal and ventral zone by a groove known as the sulcus Monroi (Sm), which extends forward and ventrally
toward the point of origin of the optic evagination (Fig. 240). At the posterior end of the ridge-like elevation which represents the roof-plate is a rounded elevation (Fig. 239, p) which, in later stages, elongates until it almost reaches the dermis, forming a hollow evagination of the brain roof known as the pineal process. The distal extremity of this process enlarges to a sac-like structure which later beFig. 238. - Transverse Section comes lobed, and, by an active pro
of the Diencephalon of an Em- Hferation of the cells lining the cavibryo of Five Weeks. ^
dz, Dorsal zone; fp, floor-plate; tieS ° f the various lobes, finally be
rp, roof-plate; Sm, sulcus Monroi vz, ventral zone. - (His.)
comes a solid structure, the pineal body.
The more proximal portion of the evagination, remaining hollow, forms the pineal stalk, and the entire structure, body and stalk, constitutes what is known as the epiphysis.
The significance of this organ in the Mammalia is doubtful. In the Reptilia and other lower forms the outgrowth is double, a secondary outgrowth arising from the base or from the anterior wall of the primary one. This anterior evagination elongates until it reaches the dorsal epidermis of the head, and, there expanding, develops into an unpaired eye, the epidermis which overlies it becoming converted into a transparent cornea. In the Mammalia this anterior process does not develop and the epiphysis in these forms is comparable only to the posterior process of the Reptilia.
In addition to the epiphysial evaginations, another evagination arises
THE DIENCEPHALON
397
from the roof-plate of the first brain vesicle, further forward, in the region which becomes the median portion of the telencephalon. This paraphysis as it has been called, has been observed in the lower vertebrates and in the Marsupials (Selenka), but up to the present has not been found in other groups of the Mammalia. It seems to be comparable to a chorioid plexus which is evaginated from the brain surface instead of being invaginated as is usually the case. There is no evidence that a paraphysis is developed in the human brain.
The portion of the roof-plate which lies in front of the epiphysis represents the velum interpositum of the adult brain, and it forms at first a distinct ridge (Fig. 239, rp). At an early stage, however, it becomes reduced to a thin membrane upon the surface of which bloodvessels, developing in the surrounding mesenchyme, arrange themselves at about the third month in two longitudinal plexuses, which, with the subjacent portions of the
velum, become invaginated into the „ „,
riG. 239. - Dorsal View of the
cavity of the third ventricle to form Brain, the Roof of the Lateral
its chorioid Mexu* Ventricles being Removed, of an
us cnomoia plexus. Embryo of 13.6 mm.
The dorsal zones thicken in b, Superior brachiuui; eg, lateral
their more dorsal and anterior S eniculate . bod y; C P> chorioid plexus; tneir more aorsai ana anterior cqa> anterior corpu3 quadrigeminum;
portions to form massive Structures, h > hippocampus; hf, hippocampal fis, 7 7 . , sure; ot, thalamus; p, pineal body; rp,
the thatami [rigs. 233, V2, and roof-plate. - (Aw.)
239, ot), which, encroaching upon
the cavity of the ventricle, transform it into a narrow slit-like
space, so narrow, indeed, that at about the fifth month the inner
surfaces of the two thalami come in contact in the median line,
forming what is known as the intermediate mass. More ventrally
/, .,
-\P
cqn
398 THE TELENCEPHALON
and posteriorly another thickening of the dorsal zone occurs, giving rise on each side to the pulvinar of the thalamus and to a lateral geniculate body, and two ridges extending backward and dorsally from the latter structures to the thickenings in the roof of the midbrain which represent the anterior corpora quadrigemina, give a path along which the nerve-fibers which constitute the superior quadrigeminal brachia pass.
From the ventral zones what is known as the hypothalamic region develops, a mass of fibers and cells whose relations and development are not yet clearly understood, but which may be regarded as the forward continuation of the tegmentum and reticular formation. In the median line of the floor of the ventricle an unpaired thickening appears, representing the corpora mamillaria, which during the third month becomes divided by a median furrow into two rounded eminences; but whether these structures and the posterior portion of the tuber cinereum, which also develops from this region of the brain, are. derivatives of the ventral zones or of the floor-plate is as yet uncertain.
Assuming that the mamillaria and the tuber cinereum are derived from the ventral zones, the origins of the structures formed from the walls of the diencephalon may be tabulated as follows:
^ . , f Velum interpositum.
Roof-plate < ^ . . . ^
(_ Epiphysis.
(Thalami. Pulvinares. Lateral geniculate bodies. (Hypothalamic region. Corpora mamillaria. Tuber cinereum (in part) . Floor-plate Tissue of mid-ventral line.
The Development of the Telencephalon.- - For convenience of description the telencephalon may be regarded as consisting of a median portion, which contains the anterior part of the third ventricle, and two lateral outgrowths which constitute the cerebral hemispheres. The roof of the median portion undergoes the same transformation as does the greater portion of that of the diencephalon
THE TELENCEPHALON 399
and is converted into the anterior part of the velum interpositum (Fig. 240, vi). Anteriorly this passes into the anterior wall of the third ventricle, the lamina terminalis (It), a structure which is to be regarded as formed by the union of the dorsal zones of opposite sides, since it lies entirely dorsal to the anterior end of the sulcus Monroi. From the ventral part of the dorsal zones the optic evaginations are formed, a depression, the optic recess (or), marking their point of origin.
The ventral zones are but feebly developed, and form the anterior part of the hypothalamic region, while at the anterior extremity of the floor-plate an evagination occurs, the infundibular recess (ir), which elongates to form a funnel-shaped structure known as the hypophysis. At its extremity the hypophysis comes in contact during the fifth week with the enlarged extremity of Rathke's pouch formed by an invagination of the roof of the oral sinus (see p. 285), and applies itself closely to the posterior surface of this (Fig. 233) to form with it the pituitary body. The anterior lobe at an early stage separates from the mucous membrane of the oral sinus, the stalk by which it was attached completely disappearing, and toward the end of the second month it begins to send out processes from its walls into the surrounding mesenchyme and so becomes converted into a mass of solid epithelial cords embedded in a mesenchyme rich in blood and lymphatic vessels. The cords later on divide transversely to a greater or less extent to form alveoli, the entire structure coming to resemble somewhat the parathyreoid bodies (see p. 297), and, like these, having the function of producing an internal secretion. The posterior lobe, derived from the brain, retains its connection with that structure, its stalk being the injundibidum, but its terminal portion does not undergo such extensive modifications as does the anterior lobe, although it is claimed that it gives rise to a glandular epithelium which may become arranged so as to form alveoli.
The cerebral hemispheres are formed from the lateral portions of the dorsal zones, each possessing also a prolongation of the roofplate. From the more ventral portion of each dorsal zone there is
400 THE TELENCEPHALON
formed a thickening, the corpus striatum (Figs. 240, cs, and 233, VI 2), a structure which is for the telencephalon what the optic thalamus is for the diencephalon, while from the more dorsal portion there is formed the remaining or mantle (pallial) portions of the hemispheres (Figs. 240, h, and 233, VI 4). When first formed, the hemispheres are slight evaginations from the median portion of the telencephalon, the openings by which their cavities communicate with the third ventricle, the interventricular foramina, being relatively very large (Fig. 240), but, in later stages (Fig. 233), the hemispheres increase more markedly and eventually surpass all the other portions of the
<y
- •■/
Fig. 240. - Median Longitudinal Section of the Brain of an Embryo of 16.3 mm. br, Anterior brachium; eg, corpus geniculatum laterale; cs, corpus striatum; h, cerebral hemisphere; ir, infundibular recess; It, lamina terminalis; or, optic recess; ot, thalamus; p, pineal process; sm, sulcus Monroi; st, hypothalamic region; vi, velum interpositum. - (His.)
brain in magnitude, overlapping and completely concealing the roof and sides of the diencephalon and mesencephalon and also the anterior surface of the cerebellum. In this enlargement, however, the interventricular foramina share only to a slight extent, and consequently become relatively smaller (Fig. 233), forming in the adult merely slit-like openings lying between the lamina terminalis and the thalami and having for their roof the anterior portion of the velum interpositum.
The velum Interpositum - that is to say, the roof-plate - where
THE TELENCEPHALON
401
it forms the roof of the interventricular foramen, is prolonged out upon the dorsal surface of each hemisphere, and, becoming invaginated, forms upon it a groove.' As the hemispheres, increasing in height, develop a mesial wall, the groove, which is the so-called chorioidal fissure, comes to lie along the ventral edge of this wall, and as the growth of the hemispheres continues it becomes more and more elongated, being carried at first backward (Fig. 241), then ventrally, and finally forward to end at the tip of the temporal lobe. After the establishment of the grooves the mesenchyme in their vicinity dips into them, and, developing blood-vessels, becomes the chorioid plexuses of the lateral ventricles, and at first these plexuses grow much more rapidly than the ventricles, and so fill them almost completely. Later, however, the walls of the hemispheres gain the ascendancy in rapidity of growth and the plexuses become relatively much smaller. Since the portions of the roof-plate which form the chorioidal fissures are continuous with the velum interpositum in the roofs of the interventricular foramina, the chorioid plexuses of the lateral and third ventricles become continuous also at that point.
Fig. 241.
-Median Longitudinal Section of the Brain of an Embryo Calf of 5 cm.
cb, Cerebellum; cp, chorioid plexus; cs, corpus striatum; JM, interventricular foramen; in, The mode of growth of the chorioid hypophysis; m, mid-brain; oc, , optic commissure; t, posterior
fissures seems to indicate the mode of par t of the diencephalon - growth of the hemispheres. At first the Wihalkovicz.) growth is more or less equal in all directions, but later it becomes more extensive posteriorly, there being more room for expansion in that direction, and when further extension backward becomes difficult the posterior extremities of the hemispheres bend ventrally toward the base of the cranium, and reaching this, turn forward to form the temporal lobes. As a result the cavities of the hemispheres, the lateral ventricles, in addition to being carried forward to form an anterior horn, are also carried backward and ventrally to form the lateral or descending horn, and the corpus striatum likewise extends 26
402 THE TELENCEPHALON
backward to the tip of each temporal lobe as a slender process known as" the tail of the caudate nucleus. In addition to the anterior and lateral horns, the ventricles of the human brain also possess posterior horns extending backward into the occipital portions of the hemispheres, these portions, on account of the greater persistence of the mid-brain flexure (see p. 388), being enabled to develop to a greater extent than in the lower mammals.
The scheme of the origin of parts in the telencephalon may be stated as follows:
Median Part. Hemispheres.
„ , , f Anterior part of velum inter- f _ , n ..,,,.
Roof-plate < . < Moor of chonoidai nssure.
(^ positum. [
r , . ... Pallium.
-r. , Lamina terminahs. _
Dorsal zones â– (_... < Corpus striatum.
Optic evaginations. _,, , , . ..
> . , . Olfactory lobes (see p. 406)
Anterior part of hypothalamic [
Ventral zones < region.
[ Anterior part of tuber cinereum.
The Convolutions of the Hemispheres. - The growth of the hemispheres to form the voluminous structures found in the adult depends mainly upon an increase of size of the pallium. The corpus striatum, although it takes part in the elongation of each hemisphere, nevertheless does not increase in other directions as rapidly and extensively as the pallium, and hence, even in very early stages, a depression appears upon the surface of the hemispheres where the corpus is situated (Fig. 242). This depression is the lateral cerebral fossa, and for a considerable period it is the only sign of inequality of growth on the outer surfaces of the hemispheres. Upon the mesial surfaces, however, at about the time that the choroid fissure appears, another linear depression is formed dorsal to the chorioid, and when fully formed extends from in front of the interventricular foramen to the tip of the temporal lobe (Fig. 244, h). It affects the entire thickness of the pallial wall and consequently produces an elevation upon the inner surface, a projection into the cavity of the ventricle which is known as the hippocampus, whence
THE CEREBRAL CONVOLUTIONS
403
the fissure may be termed the hippocampal fissure. The portion of the pallium which intervenes between this fissure and the chorioidal forms what is known as the dentate gyrus.
Toward the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth month two prolongations arise from the fissure just where it turns to be continued into the temporal lobe, and these, extending posteriorly, give rise to the parieto-occipital and calcarine fissures. Like the hippocampal, these fissures produce elevations upon the inner surface of the pallium, that formed by the parieto-occipital early disappearing, while that produced by the calcarine persists to form the calcar (hippocampus minor) of adult anatomy.
The three fissures just described, together with the chorioidal and the lateral cerebral fossa, are all formed by the beginning of the fourth month and all the fissures affect the entire thickness of the wall of the hemisphere, and hence have been termed the primary or total fissures. Until the beginning of the fifth
month they are the only fissures present, but at that time secondary fissures, which, with one exception, are merely furrows of the surface of the pallium, make their appearance and continue to form until birth and possibly later. Before considering these, however, certain changes which occur in the neighborhood of the lateral cerebral fossa may be described.
The fossa is at first a triangular depression situated above the temporal lobe on the surface of the hemisphere. During the fourth month it deepens considerably, so that its upper and lower margins become more pronounced and form projecting folds, and, during the fifth month, these two folds approach one another and eventually
Fig. 242. - Brain of an Embryo of the Fourth Month. c, Cerebellum; p, pons; s, lateral cerebral fossa.
404
TEE CEREBRAL CONVOLUTIONS
cover in the floor of the fossa completely, the groove which marks the line of their contact forming the lateral cerebral fissure, while the floor of the fossa becomes known as the insula.
The first of the secondary fissures to appear is the sulcus cinguli, which is formed about the middle of the fifth month on the mesial surface of the hemispheres, lying parallel to the anterior portion of the hippocampal fissure and dividing the mesial surface into the gyri marginalis and fornicatus. A little later, at the beginning of the sixth month, several other fissures make their appearance upon
ptc
Fig. 243. - Cerebral Hemisphere oe an Embryo of about the Seventh Month. fs, Superior frontal sulcus; ip, interparietal; IR, insula; pet, inferior pre-central; pes, superior pre-central; ptc, post-central; R, central; S, lateral; t 1 , first temporal. - (Cunningham )
the outer surface of the pallium, the chief of these being the central sulcus, the inter-parietal, the pre- and post-central, and the temporal sulci, the most ventral of these last running parallel with the lower portion of the hippocampal fissure and differing from the others in forming a ridge on the wall of the ventricle termed the collateral eminence, whence the fissure is known as the collateral. The position of most of these fissures may be seen from Fig. 243, and for a more
THE CORPUS CALLOSUM
405
complete description of them reference may be had to text-books of descriptive anatomy.
In later stages numerous tertiary fissures make their appearance and mask more or less extensively the secondaries, than which they are, as a rule, much more inconstant in position and shallower. The Corpus Callosum and Fornix. - While these fissures have been forming, important structures have developed in connection with the lamina terminalis. Up to about the fourth month the lamina is thin and of nearly uniform thickness throughout, but at this time it begins to thicken near its dorsal edge and fibers appear in the thickening. These fibers belong to three sets. In the first place, certain of them arise in connection with the olfactory tracts (see p. 407) and from the region of the hippocampal gyrus, which is also associated with the olfactory sense, and, passing through tbe substance of the lamina terminalis, they extend across the median line to the corresponding regions of the opposite cerebral hemisphere. They are therefore commissural fibers and form what is termed the anterior commissure (Figs. 244, ca and 245, ac). Secondly, fibers, which have their origin from the cells of the hippocampus, develop along the chorioidal edge of that structure, forming what is termed the fimbria. They follow along the edge of the chorioidal fissure and, when this reaches the interventricular foramen, they enter as the pillars of the fornix (Figs. 244, cf; Fig. 245,/) the substance of the lamina terminalis and, passing ventrally in it, eventually reach the hypothalamic region, where they terminate in the corpora mammillaria.
Thirdly, as the mantle develops fibers radiate from all parts of it toward the dorsal portion of the lamina terminalis and traversing it are distributed to the corresponding portions of the mantle of the opposite side. There fibers are also commissural in character and form the corpus callosum (Figs. 244 and 245, cc). With the development of these three sets of fibers and especially those forming the corpus callosum, the dorsal portion of the lamina terminalis becomes enlarged so as to form a triangular area extending between the two cerebral hemispheres (Fig. 245), the corpus callosum form
4<o6
THE CORPUS CALLOSUM
ing its dorsal portion and base, which is directed anteriorly, the pillars of the fornix its ventral portion, while the anterior commissure occupies its ventral anterior angle.
The portion of the triangle included between the callosum and the fornix remains thin and forms the septum pellucidum, and a split occurring in the center of this gives rise to the so-called^///* ventricle,
which, from its mode of formation, is a completely closed cavity and is not lined with ependymal tissue of the same nature as that found in the other ventricles.
Owing to the very considerable size reached by the triangular area whose history has just been described, important changes are wrought in the adjoining portions of the mesial surface of the hemispheres. Before the development of the area the gyrus dentatus and the hippocampus extend forward into the anterior portion of the hemispheres (Fig. 244), but on account of their position they become encroached upon by the enlargement of the corpus callosum, with the result that the hippocampus becomes practically obliterated in that portion of its course which lies in the region occupied by the corpus callosum, its fissure in this region becoming known as the callosal fissure, while the corresponding portions of the dentate gyrus become reduced to narrow and insignificant bands of nerve tissue which rest upon the upper surface of the corpus callosum and are known as the lateral longitudinal stria.
The Olfactory Lobes. - At the time when the cerebral hemispheres
Fig. 244. - Median Longitudinal Section or the Brain of an Embryo of Four Months.
c, Calcarine fissure; ca, anterior commissure; cc, corpus callosum; cf. chorioidal fissure; dg, dentate gyrus; fm, interventricular foramen; h, hippocampal fissure; po, parieto-o c c i p i t a 1 fissure. - (Mihalkovicz.)
THE OLFACTORY LOBES
407
begin to enlarge - that it to say, at about the fourth week - a slight furrow, which appears on the ventral surface of each anteriorly, marks off an area which, continuing to enlarge with the hemispheres, gradually becomes constricted off from them to form a distinct lobelike structure, the olfactory lobe (Fig. 233, VI 3). In most of the lower mammalia these lobes reach a very considerable size, and consequently have been regarded as constituting an additional division of the brain, known as the rhinencephalon, but in man they remain smaller, and although they are at first hollow, containing prolongations from the lateral ventricles, the cavities later on disappear and the lobes become solid. Each lobe becomes differentiated into two portions, its terminal portion becoming converted into the club-shaped structure, the olfactory bulb and stalk, while its proximal portion gives rise to the olfactory tracts, the trigone, and the anterior perforated substance.
Histogenesis of the Cerebral Cortex. - A satisfactory study of the histogenesis of the cortex has not yet been made. In embryos of three months a marginal velum is present and probably gives rise to the stratum zonale of the adult brain; beneath this is a cellular layer, perhaps representing the mantle layer; beneath this, again, a layer of nerve-fibers is beginning to appear, representing the white substance of the pallium; and, finally, lining the ventricle is an ependymal layer. In embryos of the fifth month, toward the innermost part of the second layer, cells are beginning to differentiate into the large pyramidal cells, but almost nothing is known as to the
Fig. 245. - Median Longitudinal Section of the Brain oe an Embryo of the Fifth Month.
ac, Anterior commissure; cc, corpus callosum; dg, dentate gyrus;/, fornix; i, infundibulum; mc, intermediate mass; si, septum pellucidum; vi, velum interpositum. - (Mihal
kovicz.)
408 THE SPINAL NERVES
origin of the other layers recognizable in the adult cortex, nor is it known whether any migration, similar to what occurs in the cerebellar cortex, takes place. The fibers of the white substance do not begin to acquire their myelin sheaths until toward the end of the ninth month, and the process is not completed until some time after birth (Flechsig), while the fibers of the cortex continue to undergo myelination until comparatively late in life (Kaes).
The Development of the Spinal Nerves. - It has already been seen that there is a fundamental difference in the mode of development of the two roots of which the typical spinal nerves are composed, the ventral root being formed by axis-cylinders which arise from neuroblasts situated within the substance of the spinal cord, while the dorsal roots arise from the cells of the neural crests, their axiscylinders growing into the substance of the cord while their dendrites become prolonged peripherally to form the sensory fibers of the nerves. Throughout the thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions of the cord the fibers which grow out from the anterior horn cells converge to form a single nerve-root in each segment, but in the cervical region fibers which arise from the more laterally situated neuroblasts make their exit from the cord independently of the more ventral neuroblasts and form the roots of the spinal accessory nerve (see p. 416). In the cervical region there are accordingly three sets of nerve-roots, the dorsal, lateral, and ventral sets.
In a typical spinal nerve, such as one of the thoracic series, the dorsal roots as they grow peripherally pass ventrally as well as outward, so that they quickly come into contact with the ventral roots with whose fibers they mingle, and the mixed nerve so formed soon after divides into two trunks, a dorsal one, which is distributed to the dorsal musculature and integument, and a larger ventral one. The ventral division as it continues its outward growth soon reaches the dorsal angle of the pleuro-peritoneal cavity, where it divides, one branch passing into the tissue of the body- wall while the other passes into the splanchnic mesoderm. The former branch, continuing its onward course in the body- wall, again divides, one branch becoming the lateral cutaneous nerve, while the other continues inward to
THE CRANIAL NERVES 409
terminate in the median ventral portion of the body as the anterior cutaneous nerve. The splanchnic branch forms a ramus communicans to the sympathetic system and will be considered more fully later on.
The conditions just described are those which obtain throughout the greater part of the thoracic region. Elsewhere the fibers of the ventral divisions of the nerves as they grow outward tend to separate from one another and to become associated with the fibers of adjacent nerves, giving rise to plexuses. In the regions where the limbs occur the formation of the plexuses is also associated with a shifting of the parts to which the nerves are supplied, a factor in plexus formation which is, however, much more evident from comparative anatomical than from embryological studies.
The Development of the Cranial Nerves. - During the last thirty years the cranial nerves have received a great deal of attention in connection with the idea that an accurate knowledge of their development would afford a clue to a most vexed problem of vertebrate morphology, the metamerism of the head. That the metamerism which was so pronounced in the trunk should extend into the head was a natural supposition, strengthened by the discovery of head-cavities in the lower vertebrates and by the indications of metamerism seen in the branchial arches, and the problem which presented itself was the correlation of the various structures belonging to each metamere and the determination of the modifications which they had undergone during the evolution of the head.
In the trunk region a nerve forms a conspicuous element of each metamere and is composed, according to what is known as Bell's law, of a ventral or efferent and a dorsal or afferent root. Until comparatively recently the study of the cranial nerves has been dominated by the idea that it was possible to extend the application of Bell's law to them and to recognize in the cranial region a number of nerve pairs serially homologous with the spinal nerves, some of them, however, having lost their afferent roots, while in others a dislocation, as it were, of the two roots had occurred.
The results obtained from investigation along this line have not,
4IO . THE CRANIAL NERVES
however, proved entirely satisfactory, and facts have been elucidated which seem to show that it is not possible to extend Bell's law, in its usual form at least, to the cranial nerves. It has been found that it is not sufficient to recognize simply afferent and efferent roots, but these must be analyzed into further components, and when this is done it is found that in the series of cranial nerves certain components occur which are not represented in the nerves of the spinal series.
Before proceeding to a description of these components it will be well to call attention to a matter already alluded to in a previous chapter (p, 84) in connection with the segmentation of the mesoderm of the head. It has been pointed out that while there exist "head-cavities" which are serially homologous with the mesodermal somites of the trunk, there has been imposed upon this primary cranial metamerism a secondary metamerism represented by the branchiomeres associated with the branchial arches, and, it may be added, this secondary metamerism has become the more prominent of the two, the primary one, as it developed, gradually slipping into the background until, in the higher vertebrates, it has become to a very considerable extent rudimentary. In accordance with this double metamerism it is necessary to recognize two sets of cranial muscles, one derived from the cranial myotomes and represented by the muscles of the eyeball, and one derived from the branchiomeric mesoderm, and it is necessary also to recognize for these two sets of muscles two sets of motor nerves, so that, with the dorsal or sensory nerve-roots, there are altogether three sets of nerve-roots in the cranial region instead of only two, as in the spinal region.
These three sets of roots are readily recognizable both in the embryonic and in the adult brain, especially if attention be directed to the cell groups or nuclei with which they are associated (Fig. 246). Thus there can be recognized: (1) a series of nuclei from which nerve-fibers arise, situated in the floor of the fourth ventricle and aquaeduct close to the median line and termed the ventral motor nuclei; (2) a second series of nuclei of origin, situated more laterally
THE CRANIAL NERVES
411
and in the substance of the formatio reticularis, and known as the lateral motor nuclei; and (3) a series of nuclei in which afferent nervefibers terminate, situated still more laterally in the floor of the ventricle and forming the dorsal or sensory nuclei. None of the twelve cranial nerves usually recognized in the text-books contains fibers associated with all three of these nuclei; the fibers from the lateral motor nuclei almost invariably unite with sensory fibers to form a
Fig. 246. - Transverse Section through the Medulla Oblongata of an Embryo of 10 mm., showing the Nuclei of Origin of the Vagus (X) and Hypoglossal (XII) Nerves. - (His.) mixed nerve, but those from all the ventral motor nuclei form independent roots, while the olfactory and auditory nerves alone, of all the sensory roots (omitting for the present the optic nerve), do not contain fibers from either of the series of motor nuclei. The relations of the various cranial nerves to the nuclei may be seen from the following table, in which the + sign indicates the presence and the - sign the absence of fibers from the nuclear series under which it stands':
412
THE CRANIAL NERVES
Number
Name
Ventral Motor
Lateral Motor
Sensory
I.
Olfactory.
_
+
III.
Oculomotor.
+
TV.
Trochlear.
+
V.
Trigeminus.
+
+
VI
Abducens.
+
VII.
Facial.
+
+
VIII.
Auditory.
+
IX.
Glossopharyngeal.
+
+
X.
XI.
Vagus. 1 Spinal Accessory. J
+
+
Two nerves - namely, the second and twelfth - have been omitted from the above table. Of these, the second or optic nerve undoubtedly belongs to ah entirely different category from the other peripheral nerves, and will be considered in the following chapter in connection with the sense-organ with which it is associated (see especially p. 460). The twelfth or hypoglossal nerve, on the other hand, really belongs to the spinal series and has only secondarily been taken up into the cranial region in the higher vertebrates. It has already been seen (p. 170) that the bodies of four vertebrae are included in the basioccipital bone, and that three of the nerves corresponding to these vertebrae are represented in the adult by the hypoglossal and the fourth by the first cervical or suboccipital nerve. The dorsal roots of the hypoglossal nerves seem to have almost disappeared, although a ganglion has been observed in embryos of 7 and 10 mm. in the posterior part of the hypoglossal region (His), and probably represents the dorsal root of the most posterior portion of the hypoglossal nerve. This ganglion disappears, as a rule, in later stages, and it is interesting to note that the ganglion of the suboccipital nerve is also occasionally wanting in the adult condition. The hypoglossal roots are to be regarded, then, as equivalent to the ventral roots of the cervical spinal nerves, and the nuclei from which they arise lie in series with the cranial ventral motor roots, a
THE CRANIAL NERVES 413
fact which indicates the equivalency of these latter with the fibers which arise from the neuroblasts of the anterior horns of the spinal cord.
The equivalents of the lateral motor roots may more conveniently be considered later on, but it may be pointed out here that these are the fibers which are distributed to the muscles of the branchiomeres. In the case of the sensory nerves a further analysis is necessary before their equivalents in the spinal series can be determined. For this the studies which have been made in recent years of the components entering into the cranial nerves of the amphibia (Strong) and fishes (Herrick) must supply a basis, since as yet a direct analysis of the mammalian nerves has not been made. In the forms named it has been found that three different components enter into the formation of the dorsal roots of the cranial nerves: (i) fibers belonging to a general cutaneous or somatic sensory system, distributed to the skin without being connected with any special sense-organs; (2) fibers belonging to what is termed the communis or viscerosensory system, distributed to the walls of the mouth and pharyngeal region and to special organs found in the skin of the same character as those occurring in the mouth; and (3) fibers belonging to a special set of cutaneous sense-organs largely developed in the fishes and known as the organs of the lateral line.
The fibers of the somatic sensory system converge to a group of cells, situated in the lateral part of the floor of the fourth ventricle and forming what is termed the trigeminal lobe, and also extend posteriorly in the substance of the medulla (Fig. 247), forming what has been termed the spinal root of the trigeminus and terminating in a column of cells which represents the forward continuation of the posterior horn of the cord. In the fishes and amphibia fibers belonging to this system are to be found in the fifth, seventh, and tenth nerves, but in the mammalia their distribution has apparently become more limited, being confined almost exclusively to the trigeminus, of whose sensory divisions they form a very considerable part. Since the cells around which the fibers of the spinal root of the trigeminus terminate are the forward continuations of the posterior
414
THE CRANIAL NERVES
horn of the cord, it seems probable that the fibers of this system are the cranial representatives of the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, which, it may be noted, are also somatic in their distribution. The fibers of the viscero-sensory system are found in the lower forms principally in the ninth and tenth nerves (see Fig. 247), although groups of them are also incorporated in the seventh and fifth. They converge to a mass of cells, known as the lobus vagi, and like the first set are also continued down the medulla to form
rix
Fig. 247. - Diagrams showing the Sensory Components of the Cranial Nerves
of a Fish (Menidia) . The somatic sensory system is unshaded, the viscero-sensory is cross-hatched, and the lateral line system is black, asc.v, Spinal root of trigeminus; brx, branchial branches of vagus; Ix, lobus vagi; ol, olfactory bulb; op, optic nerve; rc.x, cutaneous branch of the vagus; rix, intestinal branch of vagus; rl, lateral line nerve; rl.acc, accessory lateral line nerve; ros, superficial ophthalmic; rp, ramus palatinus of the facial; thy, hyomandibular branch of the facial; t.inf, infraorbital nerve. - (Herrick.)
a tract known as the fasciculus solitarius or: fasciculus communis. In the mammalia the system is represented by the sensory fibers of the glosso-pharyngeo-vagus set of nerves, of which it represents practically the entire mass; by the sensory fibers of the facial arising from the geniculate ganglion and included in the chorda tympani and probably also the great superficial petrosal; and also, probably, by
THE CRANIAL NERVES 415
the lingual branch of the trigeminus. Furthermore, since the mucous membrane of the palate is supplied by branches from the trigeminus which pass by way of the spheno-palatine (Meckel's) ganglion, and the same region is supplied in lower forms by a palatine branch from the facial, it seems probable that the palatine nerves of the mammalia are also to be assigned to this system.* If this be the case, a very evident clue is afforded to the homologies of the system in the spinal nerves, for since the spheno-palatine ganglion is to be regarded as part of the sympathetic system, the sensory fibers which pass from the viscera to the spinal cord by way of the sympathetic system (p. 420) present relations practically identical with those of the palatine nerves.
Finally, with regard to the system of the lateral line, there seems but little doubt that it has no representation whatsoever in the spinal nerves. It is associated with a peculiar system of cutaneous senseorgans found only in aquatic or marine animals, and also with the auditory and possibly the olfactory organs, the former of which are certainly and the latter possibly primarily parts of the lateral line system of organs. The organs are principally confined to the head, although they also extend upon the trunk, where they are followed by a branch from the vagus nerve, the entire system being accordingly supplied by cranial nerves. In the fishes, in which the development of the organs is at a maximum, fibers belonging to the system are found in all the branchiomeric nerves and all converge to a portion of the medulla known as the tuberculum acusticum. In the Mammalia, with the disappearance of the lateral line organs there has been a disappearance of the associated nerves, and the only certain representative of the system which persists is the auditory nerve.
The table given on page 412 may now be expanded as follows, though it must be recognized that such an analysis of the mammalian nerves is merely a deduction from what has been observed in lower
- The fact that the palatine branches are associated with the trigeminus in the Mammalia and with the facial in the Amphibia is readily explained by the fact that in the latter the Gasserian and geniculate ganglia are not always separated, so that it is possible for fibers originating from the compound ganglion to pass into either
416
THE CRANIAL NERVES
forms, and may require some modifications when the components have been subjected to actual observation:
Nerve
Ventral
Lateral
Somatic
Visceral
Lateral
Motor
Motor
Sensory
Sensory
Line
I.
_
+
III.
+
IV.
+
V.
+
+
+
VI.
+
vii.
+
+
VIII.
+
IX.]
X.
+
+
+
XL J
XII.
+
Spinal.
+
(?)
+
+
An additional word is necessary concerning the spinal accessory nerve, for it presents certain interesting relations which possibly furnish a clue to the spinal equivalents of the lateral motor roots. In the first place, the neuroblasts which give rise to those fibers of the nerve which come from the spinal cord are situated in the dorsal part of the ventral zones. As the nuclei of origin are traced anteriorly they will be found to change their position somewhat as the medulla is reached and eventually come to lie in the reticular formation, the most anterior of them being practically continuous with the motor nucleus of the vagus. Indeed, it seems that the spinal accessory nerve is properly to be regarded as an extension of the vagus downward into the cervical region (Furbringer, Streeter), a process which reaches its greatest development in the mammalia and seems to-stand in relation to the development of those portions of the trapezius and sterno-mastoid muscles which are supplied by the spinal accessory nerve.
It is believed that the white rami communicantes which pass from the spinal cord to the thoracic and upper lumbar sympathetic
THE CRANIAL NERVES 417
ganglia arise from cells situated in the dorso-lateral portions of the ventral horns, and it is noteworthy that white rami are wanting in the region in which the spinal accessory nerve occurs. Since this nerve represents a cranial lateral motor root the temptation is great to regard the cranial lateral motor roots as equivalent to the white rami of the cord, and this temptation is intensified when it is recalled that there are both embryological and topographical reasons for regarding the branchiomeric muscles, to which the cranial lateral motor nerves are supplied, as equivalent to the visceral muscles of the trunk. But in view of the fact that a sympathetic neurone is always interposed between a white ramus fiber and the visceral musculature (see Fig. 249), while the lateral motor fibers connect directly with the branchiomeric musculature, it seems advisable to await further studies before yielding to the temptation.
As regards the actual development of the cranial nerves, they follow the general law which obtains for the spinal nerves, the motor fibers being outgrowths from neuroblasts situated in the walls of the neural tube, while the sensory nerves are outgrowths from the cells of ganglia situated without the tube. In the lower vertebrates a series of thickenings, known as the suprabranchial placodes, are developed from the ectoderm along a line corresponding with the level of the auditory invagination, while on a line corresponding with the upper extremities of the branchial clefts another series occurs which has been termed that of the epibranchial placodes, and with both of these sets of placodes the cranial nerves are in connection. In the human embryo epibranchial placodes have been found in connection with the fifth, seventh, ninth and tenth nerves, to whose ganglia they contribute cells. The suprabranchial placodes, which in the lower vertebrates are associated with the lateral line nerves, are unrepresented in man, unless, as has been maintained, the sense-organs of the internal ear are their representatives.
From what has been said above it is clear that the usual arrangement of the cranial nerves in twelve pairs does not represent their true relationships with one another. The various pairs are serially homologous neither
27
418 THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
with one another nor with the typical spinal nerves, nor can they be regarded as representing twelve cranial segments. Indeed, it would seem that comparatively little information with regard to the number of myotomic segments which have fused together to form the head is to be derived from the cranial nerves, for while there are only four of these nerves which are associated with structures equivalent to the mesodermic somites of the trunk, a much greater number of head cavities or mesodermic somites has been observed in the cranial region of the embryos of the lower vertebrates, Dohrn, for instance, having found nineteen and Killian eighteen in the cranial region of Torpedo. Furthermore, it is not possible to say at present whether the branchiomeres and their associated nerves correspond with one or several of the cranial mesodermic somites, or whether, indeed, any correspondence whatever exists.
In early stages of development a series of constrictions have been observed in the cranial portion of the neural tube and have been regarded as indicating a primitive segmentation of that structure. The neuromeres, as the intervals between successive constrictions have been termed, seem to correspond with the cranial nerves as usually recognized and hence cannot be regarded as primitive segmental structures. They are more probably secondary and due to the arrangement of the neuroblasts corresponding to the various nerves.
The Development of the Sympathetic Nervous System. -
From the embryological standpoint the distinction which has been generally recognized between the sympathetic and central nervous systems does not exist, the former having been found to be an outgrowth from the latter. This mode of origin has been observed with especial clearness in the embryos of some of the lower vertebrates, in which masses of cells have been seen to separate from the posterior root ganglia to form the ganglia of the ganglionated cord (Fig. 248). In the mammalia, including man, the relations of the two sets of ganglia to one another is by no means so apparent, since the sympathetic cells, instead of being separated from the posterior root ganglion en masse, migrate from it singly or in groups, and are therefore less readily distinguishable from the surrounding mesodermal tissues.
To understand the development of the sympathetic system it must be remembered that it consists typically of three sets of ganglia. One of these is constituted by the ganglia of the ganglionated cord (Fig. 249, GC), the second is represented by the ganglia of the
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
419
'"v
^
â–
Fig. 248. - Transverse Section through an Embryo Shark (Scyllium) of ii mm.,
SHOWING THE ORIGIN OF A SYMPATHETIC GANGLION.
Ch, Notochord; E, ectoderm; G, posterior root ganglion; Gs, sympathetic ganglion; .1/,
spinal cord. - (Onodi.)
420
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
prevertebral plexuses (PVG), such as the cardiac, solar, hypogastric, and pelvic, while the third or peripheral set (PG) is formed by the cells which occur throughout the tissues of probably most of the visceral organs, either in small groups or scattered through plexuses such as the Auerbach and Meissner plexuses of the intestine. Each cell in these various ganglia stands in direct contact with the axiscylinder of a cell situated in the central nervous system, probably in the lateral horn of the spinal cord or the corresponding region of the brain, so that each cell forms the terminal link of a chain whose first link is a neurone belonging to the central system (Huber) . Through
Fig. 249. - Diagram showing the Arrangement of the Neurones of the Sympathetic System. The fibers from the posterior root ganglia are represented by the broken black lines; those from the anterior horn cells by the solid black; the white rami by red; and the sympathetic neurones by blue. DR, Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve; GC, ganglionated cord; GR, gray ramus communicans; PG, peripheral ganglion; PVG, prsevertebral ganglion; VR, ventral ramus of spinal nerve; WR, white ramus communicans. - (Adapted from Huber.) out the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the body the central system neurones form distinct cords known as the white rami communicantes (Fig. 249, WR), which pass from the spinal nerves to the adjacent ganglia of the ganglionated cord, some of them terminating around the cells of these ganglia, others passing on to the cells of the prsevertebral ganglia, and others to those of the peripheral plexuses. In the cervical, lower lumbar and sacral regions white rami are wanting, the central neurones in the first-named region probably making their way to the sympathetic cells by way of the upper
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
421
thoracic nerves, while in the lower regions they may pass down the ganglionated cord from higher regions or may join the prevertebral and peripheral ganglia directly without passing through the proximal ganglia. In addition to these white rami, what are known as gray rami also extend between the proximal ganglia and the spinal nerves; these are composed of fibers, arising from sympathetic cells,
Fig. 250. - Transverse Section through the Spinal Cord of an Embryo of 7 mm.
c, Notochord; g, posterior root ganglion; m, spinal cord; s, sympathetic cell migrating
from the posterior root ganglion; wr, white ramus.- - (His.)
which join the spinal nerves in order to pass with them to their ultimate distribution.
The brief description here given applies especially to the sympathetic system of the neck and trunk. Representatives of the system are also found in the head, in the form of a series of ganglia connected with the trigeminal and facial nerves and known as the ciliary, spheno-palatine, otic, and submaxillary ganglia; and, as will
422 THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
be seen later, there are probably some sympathetic cells which owe their origin to the root ganglia of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. There is nothing, however, in the head region corresponding to the longitudinal bundles of fibers which unite the various proximal ganglia of the trunk to form the ganglionated cord.
The first distinct indications of the sympathetic system are to be seen in a human embryo of about 7 mm. As the spinal nerves reach the level of the dorsal edge of the body-cavity, they branch, one of the branches continuing ventrally in the body-wall, while the other (Fig 250, wr) passes mesially toward the aorta, some of its fibers reaching that structure, while others bend so as to assume a longitudinal direction. These mesial branches represent the white rami communicantes, but as yet no ganglion cells can be seen in their course. The cells of the posterior root ganglia have already, for the most part, assumed their bipolar form, but among them there may still be found a number of cells in the neuroblast condition, and these (Fig. 250, s), wandering out from the ganglia, give rise to a column of cells standing in relation to the white rami. At first there is no indication of a segmental arrangement of the cells of the column (Fig. 251), but at about the seventh week such an arrangement makes its appearance in the cervical region, and later, extends posteriorly, until the column assumes the form of the ganglionated cord.
This origin of the ganglionated cord from cells migrating out from the posterior root ganglia has been described by various authors, but recently the origin of the cells has been carried a step further back, to the mantle layer of the central nervous system (Kuntz). Indifferent cells and neuroblasts are said to wander out from the walls of the medullary canal by way of both the posterior and anterior nerve roots and it is claimed that these are the cells that give rise to the ganglionated cord in the manner just described.
Before, however, the segmentation of the ganglionated cord becomes marked, thickenings appear at certain regions of the cell column, and from these, bundles of fibers may be seen extending ventrally toward the viscera. The thickenings represent certain of
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
423
the prevertebral ganglia, and later cells wander out from them and take a position in front of the aorta. In an embryo of 10.2 mm. two ganglionic masses (Fig. 251, pc) occur in the vicinity of the origin
Fig. 251. - Reconstruction of the Sympathetic System of an Embryo of 10.2 mm. am, Vitelline artery; ao, aorta; au, umbilical artery; bg, ganglionic mass representing the pelvic plexus; d, intestine; oe, oesophagus; pc, ganglia of the cceliac plexus; ph, pharynx; rv, right vagus nerve; sp, splanchnic nerves; sy, ganglionated cord; t, trachea; *, peripheral sympathetic ganglia in the walls of the stomach. - (His, Jr.)
of the vitelline artery (am), one lying above and the other below that vessel; these masses represent the ganglia of the cceliac
424 LITERATURE
plexus and have separated somewhat from the ganglionated cord, the fiber bundles which unite the upper mass with the cord representing the greater and lesser splanchnic nerves (sp), while that connected with the lower mass represents the connection of the cord with the superior mesenteric ganglion. Lower down, in the neighborhood of the umbilical arteries, is another enlargement of the cord (bg), which probably represents the inferior mesenteric and hypogastric ganglia which have not yet separated from the cell column.
With the peripheral ganglia the conditions are slightly different, in that they are formed very largely, if not exclusively, from cells that migrate from the walls of the hind-brain by way of the vagus nerves (Fig. 251). In this way the ganglia of the myenteric, pulmonary and cardiac plexuses are formed, though in the case of the last named it is probable that contributions are also received from the ganglionated cord.
The elongated courses of the cardiac sympathetic and splanchnic nerves in the adult receive an explanation from the recession of the heart arid diaphragm (see pp. 239 and 322), the latter process forcing downward the coeliac plexus, which originally occupied a position opposite the region of the ganglionated cord from which the splanchnic nerves arise.
As regards the cephalic sympathetic ganglia, the observations of Remak on the chick and Kolliker on the rabbit show that the ciliary, sphenopalatine, and otic ganglia arise by the separation of cells from the semilunar (Gasserian) ganglion, and from their adult relations it may be supposed that the cells of the submaxillary and sublingual ganglia have similarly arisen from the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve. Evidence has also been obtained from human embryos that sympathetic cells are derived from the ganglia of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves, but, instead of forming distinct ganglia in the adult, these, in all probability, associate themselves with the first cervical ganglia of the ganglionated cord.
LITERATURE.
C. R. Bardeen: "The Growth and Histogenesis of the Cerebrospinal Nerves in Mammals," Amer. Journ. AnaL, 11, 1903.
LITERATURE 425
S. R. Cajal: "Nouvelles Observations sur revolution des neuroblasts avec quelques
remarques sur l'hypothese neurogenetique de Hensen-Held," Anal. Anzeiger,
xxxii, 1908. A. F. Dixon: "On the Development of the Branches of the Fifth Cranial Nerve in
Man," Sclent. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, Ser. 1, VI, 1896. C. R. Essick: "The Development of the Nuclei pontis and the Nucleus Arcuatus in
Man," Amer. Journ. Anat., xiii, 1912. E. Giglio-Tos: "Sugli organi branchiali e laterali di senso nell' uomo nei primordi
del suo sviluppo," Monit. Zool. Ital., xill, 1902. E. Giglio-Tos: "SulP origine embrionale del nervo trigemino nell' uomo," Anat.
Anzeiger, xxi, 1902. E. Giglio-Tos: "Sui primordi dello sviluppo del nervo acustico-faciale nell' uomo,"
Anat. Anzeiger, xxi, 1902. K. Goldstein: "Die erste Entwicklung der grossen Hirncommissuren und die
'Verwachsung' von Thalamus und Striatum" Archiv jiir Anat. und Physiol.,
Anat. Abth., 1903. G. Groenberg: "Die Ontogenese einer niederen Saugergehirns nach Untersuchungen
an Erinaceus europaeus," Zoolog. Jahrb. Abth. f. Anat. und Ontogen., xv, 1901. I. Hardesty: "On the Development and Nature of the Neuroglia," Amer. Journ
Anat., in, 1904. R. G. Harrison: "Further Experiments on the Development of Peripheral Nerves,'
Amer. Journ. of Anat., v, 1906. W. His: "Zur Geschichte des menschlichen Ruckenmarkes und der Nervenwurzeln,'
Abhandl. der konigl. Sachsischen Gesellsch., Math.-Physik. Classe, xiii, 1886. W. His: "Zur Geschichte des Gehirns sowie der centralen und peripherischen Nerven
bahnen beim menschlichen Embryo," Abhandl. der konigl. Sachsischen Gesellsch.,
Math.-Physik. Classe, xiv, 1888. W. His: "Die Formentwickelung des menschlichen Vorderhirns vom Ende des ersten
bis zum Beginn des dritten Monats," Abhandl. der konigl. Sachsischen Gesellsch.,
Math.-Physik. Classe, xv. 1889. W. His: "Histogenese und Zusammenhang der Nervenelemente," Archiv fur Anat.
und Physiol., Anat. Abth., Supplement, 1890. W. His: "Die Entwickelung des menschlichen Gehirns wahrend der ersten Monate,"
Leipzig, 1904. W. His, Jr.: "Die Entwickelung des Herznervensystem bei Wirbelthieren," Abhandl.
der konigl. Sachsischen Gesellsch., Math.-Physik. Classe, xvni, 1893. W. His, Jr.: "Ueber die Entwickelung des Bauchsympathicus beim Huhnchen und
Menschen," Archiv filr Anat. und Physiol., Anat. Abth., Supplement, 1S97. C. J. Herrick: " The Cranial and First Spinal Nerves of Menidia: A Contribution upon
the Nerve Components of the Bony Fishes," Journ. of Comp. Neurol., ix, 1899. C. J. Herrick: "The Cranial Nerves and Cutaneous Sense-organs of the North
American Siluroid Fishes," Journ. of Comp. Neurol., xi, 1901. G. C. Huber: "Four Lectures on the Sympathetic Nervous System," Journ. of Comp.
Neurol., vn, 1897. A. Kuntz: "A Contribution to the Histogenesis of the Sympathetic System," Anat.
Record, in, 1909.
426 LITERATURE
A. Kuntz: "The role of the Vagi in the Development of the Sympathetic Nervous
System," Anat. Anzeiger, xxxv, 1909. A. Kuntz: "The Development of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Mammals,'
Journ. Compar. Neurol., xx, 1910. M. von Lenhossek: "Die Entwickelung der Ganglienanlagen bei dem menschlichen
Embryo," Archiv filr Anat. und Physiol., Anat. Abth., 1891.
F. Marchand: "Ueber die Entwickelung des Balkens im menschlichen Gehirn,"
Archiv filr mikrosk. Anat., xxxvn, 1891. V. VON Mihalkovicz: " Entwickelungsgeschichte des Gehirns," Leipzig, 1877. A. D. Onodi: "Ueber die Entwickelung des sympathischen Nervensystems," Archiv
filr mikrosk. Anat., xxvn, 1886.
G. Retzius: "Das Menschenhirn," Stockholm, 1896.
A. Schaper: "Die friihesten Differenzirungsvorgange im Central-nerven-system,'
Archiv filr Entwicklungsmechanik, v, 1897. G. L. Streeter: " The Development of the Cranial and Spinal Nerves in the Occipita
Region of the Human Embryo," Amer. Journ. Anat., iv, 1904. O. S. Strong: "The Cranial Nerves of Amphibia," Journal of Morphol., x, 1895. R. Wlassak: "Die Herkunft des Myelins," Archiv filr Entwicklungsmechanik, VI
1898. E. Zuckerkandl: "Zur Entwicklung des Balkens," Arbeiten aus neurol. Inst. Wien.
xvii, 1909.
CHAPTER XVI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE
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McMurrich JP. The Development Of The Human Body. (1914) P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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Like the cells of the central nervous system, the sensory cells are all of ectodermal origin, and in lower animals, such as the earthworm, for instance, they retain their original position in the ectodermal epithelium throughout life. In the vertebrates, however, the majority of the sensory cells relinquish their superficial position and sink more or less deeply into the subjacent tissues, being represented by the posterior root ganglion cells and by the sensory cells of the special sense-organs, and it is only in the olfactory organ that the original condition is retained. Those cells which have withdrawn from the surface receive stimuli only through overlying cells, and in certain cases these transmitting cells are not specially differentiated, the terminal branches of the sensory dendrites e ding among ordinary epithelial cells or in such structures as the Pacinian bodies or the end-bulbs of Krause situated beneath undifferentiated epithelium. In other cases, however, certain specially modified superficial cells serve to transmit the stimuli to the peripheral sensory neurones, forming such structures as the hair-cells of the auditory epithelium or the gustatory cells of the taste-buds.
Thus three degrees of differentiation of the special sensory cells may be recognized and a classification of the sense-organs may be made upon this basis. One organ, however, the eye, cannot be brought into such a classification, since its sensory cells present certain developmental peculiarities which distinguish them from those of all other sense-organs. Embryologically the retina is a portion of the central nervous system and not a peripheral organ, and hence it will be convenient to arrange the other sense-organs
427
428 THE OLFACTORY ORGANS
according to the classification indicated and to discuss the" history of the eye at the close of the chapter.
The Development of the Olfactory Organ. - The general development of the nasal fossa, the epithelium of which contains the olfactory sense cells, has already been described (pp. 99 and 283), as has also the development of the olfactory lobes of the brain (p. 406), and there remains for consideration here merely the formation of the olfactory nerve and the development of the rudimentary organ of Jacobson.
The Olfactory Nerve. - Very diverse results have been obtained by various observers of the development of the olfactory nerve, it having been held at different times that it was formed by the outgrowth of fibers from the olfactory lobes (Marshall), from fibers which arise partly from the olfactory lobes and partly from the olfactory epithelium (Beard), from the cells of an olfactory ganglion originally derived from the olfactory epithelium but later separating from it (His), and, finally, that it was composed of the prolongations of certain cells situated and, for the most part at least, remaining permanently in the olfactory epithelium (Disse). The most recent observations on the structure of the olfactory epithelium and nerve indicate a greater amount of probability in the last result than in the others, and the description which follows will be based upon the observations of His, modified in conformity with the results obtained by Disse from chick embryos.
In human embryos of the fourth week the cells lining the upper part of the olfactory pits show a distinction into ordinary epithelial and sensory cells, the latter, when fully formed, being elongated cells prolonged peripherally into a short but narrow process which reaches the surface of the epithelium and proximally gives rise to an axis-cylinder process which extends up toward and penetrates the tip of the olfactory lobe to come into contact with the dendrites of the first central neurones of the olfactory tract (Fig. 252). These cells constitute a neuro-epithelium and in later stages of development retain their epithelial position for the most part, a few of them, however, withdrawing into the subjacent mesenchyme and becoming
THE OLFACTORY ORGANS
429
bipolar, their peripheral prolongations ending freely among the cells of the olfactory epithelium. These bipolar cells resemble closely in form and relations the cells of the embryonic posterior root ganglia, and thus form an interesting transition between these and the neuroepithelial cells.
The Organ of Jacohson. - In embryos of three or four months a
Fig. 252. - Diagram Illustrating the Relations of the Fibers of the Olfactory Nerve.
Ep, Epithelium of the olfactory pit; C, cribiform plate of the'ethmoid, G, glomerulus of
the olfactory bulb; M, mitral cell. - (Van Gekuchten.) j
small pouch-like invagination of the epithelium covering the lower anterior portion of the median septum of the nose can readily be seen. This becomes converted into a slender pouch, 3 to 5 mm. long, ending blindly at its posterior extremity and opening at its other end
430 THE ORGANS OF TASTE
into the nasal cavity. Its lining epithelium resembles that of the respiratory portion of the nasal cavity, and there is developed in the connective tissue beneath its floor a slender plate of cartilage, distinct from that forming the septum of the nose.
This organ, which may apparently undergo degeneration in the adult, and in some cases completely disappears, appears to be the representative of what is known as Jacobson's organ, a structure which reaches a much more extensive degree of development in many of the lower mammals, and in these contains in its epithelium sensory cells whose axis-cylinder processes pass with those of the olfactor} sense cells to the olfactory bulbs. In man, however, it seems to be a rudimentary organ, and no satisfactory explanation of its function has as yet been advanced.
The olfactory neuro-epithelium, considered from a comparative standpoint, seems to have been derived from the system of lateral line organs so highly developed in the lower vertebrates (Kupffer). In higher forms the system, which is cutaneous in character, has disappeared except in two regions where it has become highly specialized. In one of these regions it has given rise to the olfactory sense cells and in the other to the similar cells of the auditory apparatus.
The Organs of Touch and Taste. - Little is yet known concerning the development of the various forms of tactile organs, which belong to the second class of sensory organs described above.
The Organs of Taste. - The remaining organs of special sense belong to the third class, and of these the organs of taste present in many respects the simplest condition. They are developed principally in connection with the vallate and foliate papillae of the tongue, and of the former one of the earliest observed stages has been found in embryos of 9 cm. in the form of two ridges of epidermis, lying toward the back part of the tongue and inclined to one another in such a manner as to form a V with the apex directed backward. From these ridges solid downgrowths of epidermis into the subjacent tissue occur, each downgrowth having the form of a hollow truncated cone with its basal edge continuous with the
THE INTERNAL EAR 43 1
superficial epidermis (Fig. 253, A). In later stages lateral outgrowths develop from the deeper edges of the cone, and about the same time clefts appear in the substance of the original downgrowths (Fig. 253, B) and, uniting together, finally open to the surface, forming a trench surrounding a papilla (Fig. 253, C). The lateral outgrowths, which are at first solid, also undergo an axial degeneration and become converted into the glands of Ebner (b), which open into the trench near its floor. The various papillae which occur in the adult do not develop simultaneously, but their number increases with the age of the fetus, and there is, moreover, considerable variation in the time of their development.
The taste-buds are formed by a differentiation of the epithelium which covers the papillae, and this differentiation appears to stand
B C
Fig. 253. - Diagrams Representing the Development of a Vallate Papilla. a, Valley surrounding the papilla; b, von Ebner's gland. - (Graberg.)
in intimate relation with the penetration of fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve into the papillae. The buds form at various places upon the papillae, and at one period are especially abundant upon their free surfaces, but in the later weeks of intrauterine life these surface buds undergo degeneration and only those upon the sides of the trench persist, as a rule.
The foliate papillae do not seem to be developed until some time after the circumvallate, being entirely wanting in embryos of four and a half and five months, although plainly recognizable at the seventh month.
The Development of the Ear. - It is customary to describe the mammalian ear as consisting of three parts, known as the inner, middle, and outer ears, and this division is, to a certain extent at
43 2
THE INTERNAL EAR
least, confirmed by the embryonic development. The inner ear, which is the sensory portion proper, is an ectodermal structure, which secondarily becomes deeply seated in the mesodermal tissue of the head, while the middle and outer ears, which provide the apparatus necessary for the conduction of the sound-waves to the inner ear, are modified portions of the anterior branchial arches. It will be convenient, accordingly, in the description of the ear, to accept the usually recognized divisions and to consider first of all the development of the inner ear, or, as it is better termed, the otocyst. The Development of the Otocyst. - In an embryo of 2.4 mm. a pair of pits occur upon the surface of the body about opposite the middle portion of the hind-brain (Fig. 254, A). The ectoderm lining the pits is somewhat thicker than is the neighboring ectoderm
a - B
Fig. 254. - Transverse Section Passing through the Otocyst (ot) of Embryos of (A) 2.4 mm. and (B) 4 mm. - (His.)
of the surface of the body, and, from analogy with what occurs in other vertebrates, it seems probable that the pits are formed by the invagination of localized thickenings of the ectoderm. The mouth of each pit gradually becomes smaller, until finally the invagination is converted into a closed sac (Fig. 254, B), which separates from the surface ectoderm and becomes enclosed within the subjacent mesoderm. This sac is the otocyst, and in the stage just described, found in embryos of 4 mm., it has an oval or more or less spherical form. Soon, however, in embryos of 6.9 mm., a prolongation arises from its dorsal portion and the sac assumes the form shown in Fig. 255, A; this prolongation, which is held by some authors to be the remains of the stalk which originally connected the otocyst sac
THE INTERNAL EAR
433
with the surface ectoderm, represents the ductus endolymphaticus , and, increasing in length, it soon becomes a strong club-shaped process, projecting considerably beyond the remaining portions of the otocyst (Fig. 255, B). In embryos of about 10.2 mm. the sac begins to show certain other irregularities of shape (Fig. 255, B, sc). Thus, about opposite the point of origin of the ductus endolymphaticus three folds make their appearance, representing the semi
-rsc
Fig. 255. - Reconstruction of the Otocysts of Embryo of (A) 6.9 mm. and (B)
10.2 MM.
de, Endolymphatic duct; gc, ganglion cochleare; gg, ganglion geniculatum; gv,
ganglion vestibulare; sc, lateral semicircular duct. - (His, Jr.)
circular ducts, and as they increase in size the opposite walls of the central portion of each fold come together, fuse, and finally become absorbed, leaving the free edge of the fold as a crescentic canal, at one end of which an enlargement appears to form the ampulla. The transformation of the folds into canals takes place somewhat earlier in the cases of the two vertical than in that of the horizontal duct, as 28
434
THE INTERNAL EAR
may be seen from Fig. 256, which represents the condition occurring
in an embryo of 13.5 mm.
A short distance below the level at which the canals communicate
with the remaining portion of the otocyst a constriction appears,
indicating a separation of the otocyst into a more dorsal portion and a more ventral one. Later, the latter begins to be prolonged into a flattened canal which, as it elongates, becomes coiled upon itself and also becomes separated by a constriction from the remaining portion of the otocyst (Fig. 257). This canal is the ductus cochlearis (scala media of the cochlea), and the remaining portion of the otocyst subsequently becomes divided by a constriction into the utriculus, with which the semicircular ducts are connected, and the sacculus. The constriction which separates the cochlear duct from the sacculus becomes the ductus reuniens, while that between the utriculus and sacculus is converted into a narrow canal with which the ductus endolymphaticus connects, and hence it is that, in the adult, the connection between these two portions of H the otocyst seems to be formed by the ductus dividing proximally into two limbs, one of which is connected with
the utricle and the other with the saccule.
When first observed in the human embryo the auditory ganglion
is closely associated with the geniculate ganglion of the seventh
nerve (Fig. 255, B), the two, usually spoken of as the acustico-facialis
ganglion, forming a mass of cells lying in close contact with the
Fig. 256. - Reconstruction of the Otocyst of an Embryo of I3.5 MM.
co, Cochlea; de, endolymphatic duct;.sc, semicircular duct. - (His Jr.)
THE INTERNAL EAR
435
anterior wall of the otocyst. The origin of the ganglionic mass has not yet been traced in the mammalia, but it has been observed that in cow embryos the geniculate ganglion is connected with the ectoderm at the dorsal end of the first branchial cleft (Froriep), and it may perhaps be regarded as one of the epibranchial placodes (see p. 417), and in the lower vertebrates a union of the ganglion with a suprabranchial placode has been observed (Kupffer), this union
Fig. 257. - Reconstruction of the Otocyst of an Embryo of 20 mm., front view. cc, Common limb of superior and posterior semicircular ducts; eg, cochlear ganglion; co, cochlea; de, endolymphatic duct; s, sacculus; sdl, sdp, and sds x lateral, posterior and superior semicircular ducts; u, utriculus; vg, vestibular ganglion. - (Streeter.) indicating the origin of the auditory ganglion from one or more of the ganglia of the lateral line system.
At an early stage in the human embryo the auditory ganglion shows indications of a division into two portions, a more dorsal one, which represents the future ganglion vestibular e, and a ventral one, the ganglion cochleare. The ganglion cells become bipolar, in which condition they remain throughout life, never reaching the T-shaped condition found in most of the other peripheral cerebro-spinal ganglia. One of the prolongations of each cell is directed centrally to
43 6
THE INTERNAL EAR
form a fiber of the auditory nerve, while the other penetrates the wall of the otocyst to enter into relations with certain specially modified cells which differentiate from its lining epithelium.
â– In the earliest stages the ectodermal lining of the otocyst is formed of similar columnar cells, but later over the greater part of the surface the cells flatten down, only a few, aggregated together to
Fig. 258. - The Right Internal Ear of an Embryo of Six Months. ca, ce, and cp, Superior, lateral, and posterior semicircular ducts; cr, crista acustica; de, endolymphatic duct; Is, spiral ligament; mb, basilar membrane; ms and tnu, macula acustica sacculi and utriculi; rb, basilar branches of the cochlear nerve. - (Retzius.) form patches, retaining the high columnar form and developing hairlike processes upon their free surfaces. These are the sensory cells of the ear. In the human ear there are in all six patches of these sensory cells, an elongated patch (crista ampullaris) in the ampulla of each semicircular canal (Fig. 258, cr), a round patch (macula acus
THE INTERNAL EAR 437
tica, mii) in the utriculus and another (ms) in the sacculus, and, finally, an elongated patch which extends the entire length of the scala media of the cochlea and forms the sensory cells of the spiral organ of Corti. The cells of this last patch are connected with the fibers from the cochlear ganglion, while those of the vestibular ganglion pass to the cristas and maculae.
In connection with the spiral organ certain adjacent cells also retain their columnar form and undergo various modifications,
ftfJ^\-\'
<&WB
%^,
l&i^Spfc
Fig. 259. - Section of the Cochlear Duct of a Rabbit Embryo of 55 mm.
a, Mesenchyme; b to e, epithelium of cochlear duct; M.t, membrana tectoria; V.s.p,
vein; 1 to 7, spiral organ of Corti. - (Baginsky.)
giving rise to a rather complicated structure whose development has been traced in the rabbit. Along the whole length of the cochlear duct the cells resting upon that half of the basilar membrane which is nearest the axis of the cochlea, and may be termed the inner half, retain their columnar shape, forming two ridges projecting slightly into the cavity of the scala (Fig. 259). The cells of the inner ridge, much the larger of the two, give rise to the membrana tectoria,
438 THE INTERNAL EAR
either as a cuticular secretion or by the artificial adhesion of long hair-like processes which project from their free surfaces (Ayers). The cells of the outer ridge are arranged in six longitudinal rows (Fig. 259, 1-6); those of the innermost row (1) develop hairs upon their free surfaces and form the inner hair cells, those of the next two
rows (2 and 3) gradually become transformed on their adjacent surfaces into chitinous
p /- /^ substance and form the rods of
Corti, while the three outer rows
- (4 to 6) develop into the outer e -^~~ __ hair cells. It is in connection
with the hair cells that the peripheral prolongations of the cells of the cochlear ganglion ter™JS= d^t" 1 ™ mi «ate, and since these hair cells Rabbit Embryo of Twenty-four Days, are arranged in rows extending c, Periotic cartilage; ep, fibrous mem- .1 pnt j rp ] er ,a\h of the cochlear brane beneath the epithelium of the canal; me ermre lengin 01 me COCIliear p, perichondrium; s, spongy tissue. - (Von duct, the ganglion also IS drawn Kolliker.) . 1 .. .
out into a spiral following the coils of the cochlea, and hence is sometimes termed the spiral ganglion.
While the various changes described above have been taking place in the otocyst, the mesoderm surrounding it has also been undergoing development. At first this tissue is quite uniform in character, but later the cells immediately surrounding the otocyst condense to give rise to a fibrous layer (Fig. 260, ep), while more peripherally they become more loosely arranged and form a somewhat gelatinous layer (s) , and still more peripherally a second fibrous layer is differentiated and the remainder of the tissue assumes a character which indicates an approaching conversion into cartilage. The further history of these various layers is as follows: The inner fibrous layer gives rise to the connective-tissue wall which supports the ectodermal lining of the various portions of the otocyst; the gelatinous layer undergoes a degeneration to form a lymph-like
THE INTERNAL EAR
439
fluid known as the perilymph, the space occupied by the fluid being the perilymphatic space; the outer fibrous layer becomes perichondrium and later periosteum; and the precartilage undergoes chondrification and later ossifies to form the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
The gelatinous layer completely surrounds most of the otocyst structures, which thus come to lie free in the perilymphatic space, but in the cochlear region the conditions are somewhat different. In this region the gelatinous layer is interrupted along two lines,
Fig. 261. - Diagrammatic Transverse Section through a Coil of the Cochlea showing the relation of the scal^e. c, Organ of Corti; co, ganglion cochleare; Is, lamina spiralis; SAT, cochlear duct; ST, scala tympani; SV, scala vestibuli. - (From Gerlach.) an outer broad one where the connective-tissue wall of the cochlear duct is directly continuous with the perichondrium layer, and an inner narrow one, along which a similar fusion takes place with the perichondrium of a shelf-like process of the cartilage, which later ossifies to form the lamina spiralis. Consequently throughout the cochlear region the perilymphatic space is divided into two compartments which communicate at the apex of the cochlea, while below one, known as the scala vestibuli, communicates with the space
440 THE MIDDLE EAR
surrounding the saccule and utricle, and the other, the scala tympani, abuts upon a membrane which separates it from the cavity of the middle ear and represents a portion of the outer wall of the petrous bone where chondrification and ossification have failed to occur. This membrane closes what appears in the dried skull to be an opening in the inner wall of the middle ear, known as the fenestra cochlea (rotunda) ; another similar opening, also closed by membrane in the fresh skull, occurs in the bony wall opposite the utricular portion of the otocyst and is known as the fenestra vestibuli (ovalis) .
The Development of the Middle Ear. - The middle ear develops from the upper part of the pharyngeal groove which represents the endodermal portion of the first branchial cleft. This becomes prolonged dorsally and at its dorsal end enlarges to form the tympanic cavity, while the narrower portion intervening between this and the pharyngeal cavity represents the tuba auditiva (Eustachian tube).
To correctly understand the development of the tympanic cavity it is necessary to recall the structures which form its boundaries. Anteriorly to the upper end of the first branchial pouch there is the upper end of the first arch, and behind it the corresponding part of the second arch, the two fusing together dorsal to the tympanic cavity and forming its roof. Internally the cavity is bounded by the outer wall of the cartilaginous investment of the otocyst, while externally it is separated from the upper part of the ectodermal groove of the first branchial cleft by the thin membrane which forms the floor of the groove.
It has been seen in an earlier chapter that the axial mesoderm of each branchial arch gives rise to skeletal structures and muscles. The axial cartilage of the ventral portion of the first arch is what is known as Meckel's cartilage, but in that portion of the arch which forms the roof and anterior wall of the tympanic cavity, the cartilage becomes constricted to form two masses which later ossify to form the malleus and incus (Fig. 262, m and i), while the muscular tissue of this dorsal portion of the arch gives rise to the tensor tympani. Similarly, in the case of the second arch there is to be found, dorsal to
THE MIDDLE EAR 44 1
the extremity of the cartilage which forms the styloid process of the adult, a narrow plate of cartilage which forms an investment for the facial nerve (Fig. 262, VII), and dorsal to this a ring of cartilage (st) which surrounds a small stapedial artery and represents the stapes.
It has been found that in the rabbit the mass of cells from which the stapes is formed is at its first appearance quite independent of the second branchial arch (Fuchs), and it has been held to be a
Fig. 262. - Semi-diagrammatic Viewof the Auditory Ossicles of an Embryo of Six Weeks. i, Incus; j, jugular vein; m, malleus; mc, Meckel's cartilage; oc, capsule of otocyst; R, cartilage of the second branchial arch; st, stapes; VII, facial nerve. - (Siebenmann.) derivative of the mesenchyme from which the periotic capsule is formed. In later stages, however, it becomes connected with the cartilage of the second branchial arch, as shown in Fig. 262, and it is a question whether this connection, which is transitory, does not really indicate the phylogenetic origin of the ossicle from the second arch cartilage, its appearance as an independent structure being a secondary ontogenetic phenomenon. However that may be, the stapedial artery disappears in later stages and the stapedius muscle, derived from the musculature of the second branchial arch and therefore supplied by the facial nerve, becomes attached to the ossicle.
The three ossicles at first lie embedded in the mesenchyme forming the roof of the primitive tympanic cavity, as does also the chorda tympani, a branch of the seventh nerve, as it passes into the substance of the first arch on the way to its destination. The mesenchyme in which these various structures are embedded is rather voluminous (Fig. 264), and after the end of the seventh month becomes converted into a peculiar spongy tissue, which, toward the end of fetal life, gradually degenerates, the tympanic cavity at the same time expanding and wrapping itself around the ossicles and the muscles attached to them (Fig. 263). The bones and their muscles, consequently, while appearing in the adult to traverse the tympanic cavity, are really completely enclosed within a layer of epithelium continuous with that lining the wall of the cavity, while the handle of the malleus and the chorda tympani lie between the epithelium of the outer wall of the cavity and the fibrous mesoderm which forms the tympanic membrane. The extension of the tympanic cavity does not, however, cease with its replacement of the degenerated spongy mesenchyme, but toward the end of fetal life it begins to invade the substance of the temporal bone by a process similar to that which produces the ethmoidal cells and the other osseous sinuses in connection with the nasal cavities (see p. 175). This process continues for some years after birth and results in the formation in the mastoid portion of the bone of the so-called mastoid cells, which communicate with the tympanic cavity and have an epithelial lining continuous with that of the cavity.
Fig. 263. - Diagrams Illustrating the Mode of Extension of the Tympanic Cavity Around the Auditory Ossicles.
M, Malleus; m, spongy mesenchyme; p, surface of the periotic capsule; T, tympanic cavity. The broken line represents the epithelial lining of the tympanic cavity.
The lower portion of the diverticulum from the first pharyngeal groove which gives rise to the tympanic cavity becomes converted into the Eustachian tube. During development the lumen of the tube disappears for a time, probably owing to a proliferation of its lining epithelium, but it is re-established before birth.
In the account of the development of the ear-bones given above it is held that the malleus and incus are derivatives of the first branchial (mandibular) arch and the stapes probably of the second. This view represents the general consensus of recent workers on the difficult question of the origin of these bones, but it should be mentioned that nearly all possible modes of origin have been at one time or other suggested. The malleus has very generally been accepted as coming from the first arch, and the same is true of the incus, although some earlier authors have assigned it to the second arch. But with regard to the stapes the opinions have been very varied. It has been held to be derived from the first arch, from the second arch, from neither one nor the other, but from the cartilaginous investment of the otocyst, or, finally, it has been held to have a compound origin, its arch being a product of the second arch while its basal plate was a part of the otocyst investment.
The Development of the Tympanic Membrane and of the Outer Ear. - Just as the tympanic cavity is formed from the endodermal groove of the first branchial cleft, so the outer ear owes its origin to the ectodermal groove of the same cleft and to the neighboring arches. The dorsal and most ventral portions of the groove flatten out and disappear, but the median portion deepens to form, at about the end of the second month, a funnel-shaped cavity which corresponds to the outer portion of the external auditory meatus. From the inner end of this a solid ingrowth of ectoderm takes place, and this, enlarging at its inner end to form a disk-like mass, comes into relation with the gelatinous mesoderm which surrounds the malleus and chorda tympani. At about the seventh month a split occurs in the disk-like mass (Fig. 264), separating it into an outer and an inner layer, the latter of which becomes the outer epithelium of the tympanic membrane. Later, the split extends outward in the substance of the ectodermal ingrowth and eventually unites with the funnel-shaped cavity to complete the external meatus.
Fig. 264. - Horizontal Section Passing through the Dorsal Wall of the External Auditory Meatus in an Embryo of 4.5 cm.
c, Cochlea; de, endolymphatic duct; i, incus; Is, transverse sinus; m, malleus; me,
meatus auditorius externus; me' , cavity of the meatus; s, sacculus; sc, lateral semicircular
canal; sc', posterior semicircular canal; st, stapes; t, tympanic cavity; u, utriculus; 7,
facial nerve. - (Siebenmann.)
The tympanic membrane is formed in considerable part from the substance of the first branchial arch, the area in which it occurs not being primarily part of the wall of the tympanic cavity, but being brought into it secondarily by the expansion of the cavity. The membrane itself is mesodermal in origin and is lined on its outer surface by an ectodermal and on the inner by an endodermal epithelium.
The auricle (pinna) owes its origin to the portions of the first and second arches which bound the entrance of the external meatus. Upon the posterior edge of the first arch there appear about the end of the fourth week two transverse furrows which mark off three tubercles (Fig. 258, A, 1-3) and on the anterior edge of the second arch a corresponding number of tubercles (4-6) is formed, while, in addition, a longitudinal furrow, running down the middle of the arch, marks ofT a ridge (c) lying posterior to the tubercles. From these six tubercles and the ridge are developed the various parts of the auricle, as may be seen from Fig. 265 which represents the transformation as described by His. According to this, the most ventral tubercle of the first arch (i) gives rise to the tragus, and the middle one (5) of the second arch furnishes the antitragus. The middle and dorsal tubercles of the first arch (2 and 3) unite with the ridge (c) to produce the helix, while from the dorsal tubercle of the second arch (4) is produced the anthelix and from the ventral one (6) the lobule. More recent observations, however, seem to indicate that the lobule is an accessory structure unrelated to the tubercles and that the sixth tubercle gives rise to the antitragus, while the fifth is either included in the anthelix or else disappears. It is noteworthy that up to about the third month of development the upper and posterior portion of the helix is bent forward so as to conceal the anthelix (Fig. 265, D); it is at just about a corresponding stage that the pointed form of the ear seen in the lower mammals makes its appearance, and it is evident that, were it not for the forward bending, the human ear would also be assuming at this stage a more or less pointed form. Indeed, there is usually to be found upon the incurved edge of the helix, some distance below the upper border of the auricle, a more or less distinct tubercle, known as Darwin's tubercle, which seems to represent the point of the typical mammalian ear, and is, accordingly, the morphological apex of the pinna.
Fig. 265. - Stages in the Development of the Auricle.
A, Embryo of n mm.; B, of 13.6 mm.; C, of 15 mm.; D, at the beginning of the third month; E, fetus of 8.5 cm.; F, fetus at term. - (His.)
There seems to be little room for doubt that the otocyst belongs primarily to the system of lateral line sense-organs, but a discussion of this interesting question would necessitate a consideration of details concerning the development of the lower vertebrates which would be foreign to the general plan of this book. It may be recalled, however, that the analysis of the components of the cranial nerves described on page 415 refers the auditory nerve to the lateral line system.
The Development of the Eye. - The first indications of the development of the eye are to be found in a pair of hollow outgrowths from the side of the first primary brain vesicle, at a level which corresponds to the junction of the dorsal and ventral zones. Each evagination is directed at first upward and backward, and, enlarging at its extremity, it soon shows a differentiation into a terminal bulb and a stalk connecting the bulb with the brain (Fig. 232). At an early stage the bulb comes into apposition with the ectoderm of the side of the head, and this, over the area of contact, becomes thickened and then depressed to form the beginning of the future lens (Fig. 266).
Fig. 266. - Early Stages in the Development of the Lens in a Rabbit Embryo. The nucleated layer to the left is the ectoderm and the thicker lens epithelium, beneath which is the outer wall of the optic evagination; above and below between the two is mesenchyme. - (Rabl.)
As the result of the depression of the lens ectoderm, the outer wall of the optic bulb becomes pushed inward toward the inner wall, and this invagination continuing until the two walls come into contact, the bulb is transformed into a double-walled cup, the optic cup, in the mouth of which lies the lens (Fig. 268). The cup is not perfect, however, since the invagination affects not only the optic bulb, but also extends medially on the posterior surface of the stalk, forming upon this a longitudinal groove and producing a defect of the ventral wall of the cup, known as the chorioidal fissure (Fig. 267). The groove and fissure become occupied by mesodermal tissue, and in this, at about the fifth week, a blood-vessel develops which traverses
Fig. 267. - Reconstruction of the Brain of an Embryo of Four Weeks, showing the Chorioid Fissure. - (His.) the cavity of the cup to reach the lens and is known as the arteria hyaloidea.
In the meantime further changes have been taking place in the lens. The ectodermal depression which represents it gradually deepens to form a cup, the lips of which approximate and finally meet, so that the cup is converted into a vesicle which finally separates completely from the ectoderm (Fig. 268), much in the same way as the otocyst does. As the lens vesicle is constricted off, the surrounding mesodermal tissue grows in to form a layer between it and the overlying ectoderm, and a split appearing in the layer divides it into an outer thicker portion, which represents the cornea, and an inner thinner portion, which covers the outer surface of the lens and becomes highly vascular. The cavity between these two portions represents the anterior chamber of the eye. The cavity of the optic cup has also become filled by a peculiar tissue which represents the vitreous humor, while the mesodermal tissue surrounding the cup condenses to form a strong investment for it, which is externally continuous with the cornea, and at about the sixth week shows a differentiation into an inner vascular layer, the chorioid coat, and an outer denser one, which becomes the sclerotic coat.
Fig. 268. - Horizontal Section through the Eye of an Embryo Pig of 7 mm. Br, Diencephalon; Ec, ectoderm; I, lens; P, pigment, and R, retinal layers of the retina.
The various processes resulting in the formation of the eye, which have thus been rapidly sketched, may now be considered in greater detail.
The Development of the Lens. - When the lens vesicle is complete, it forms a more or less spherical sac lying beneath the superficial ectoderm and containing in its cavity a few cells, either scattered or in groups (Fig. 268). These cells, which have wandered into the cavity of the vesicle from its walls, take no part in the further development of the lens, but early undergo complete degeneration, and the first change which is concerned with the actual formation of the lens is an increase in the height of the cells forming its inner wall and a thinning out of its outer wall (Fig. 269, A). These changes continuing, the outer half of the vesicle becomes converted into a single layer of somewhat flat cells which persist in the adult condition to form the anterior epithelium of the lens, while the cells of the posterior wall form a marked projection into the cavity of the vesicle and eventually completely obliterate it, coming into contact with the inner surface of the anterior epithelium (Fig. 269, B).
These posterior elongated cells form, then, the principal mass of the lens, and constitute what are known as the lens fibers. At first those situated at the center of the posterior wall are the longest, the more peripheral ones gradually diminishing in length until at the equator of the lens they become continuous with and pass into the anterior epithelium. As the lens increases in size, however, the most centrally situated cells fail to elongate as rapidly as the more peripheral ones and are pushed in toward the center of the lens, the more peripheral fibers meeting below them along a line passing across the inner surface of the lens. The disparity of growth continuing, a similar sutural line appears on the outer surface beneath the anterior epithelium, and the fibers become arranged in concentric layers around a central core composed of the shorter fibers. In the human eye the line of suture of the peripheral fibers becomes bent so as to consist of two limbs which meet at an angle, and from the angle a new sutural line develops during embryonic life, so that the suture assumes the form of a three-rayed star. In later life the stars become more complicated, being either six-rayed or more usually nine-rayed in the adult condition '(Fig. 270).
Fig. 269. - Sections through the Lens (4) of Human Embryo of Thirty Thirty-one Days and (B) of Pig Embryo of 36 Mu. - (Rabl.)
As early as the second month of development the lens vesicle becomes completely invested by the mesodermal tissue in which blood-vessels are developed in considerable numbers, whence the
Fig. 270. - Posterior (Inner) Surface of the Lens from an Adult showing the Sutural Lines. - (Rabl.)
investment is termed the tunica vasculosa lends (Fig. 278, tv). The arteries of the tunic are in connection principally with the hyaloid artery of the vitreous humor (Fig. 276), and consist of numerous fine branches which envelop the lens and terminate in loops almost at the center of its outer surface. This tunic undergoes degeneration after the seventh month of development, by which time the lens has completed its period of most active growth, and, as a rule, completely disappears before birth. Occasionally, however, it may persist to a greater or less extent, the persistence of the portion covering the outer surface of the lens, known as the membrana papillaris, causing the malformation known as congenital atresia of the pupil.
In addition to the vascular tunic, the lens is surrounded by a non-cellular membrane termed the capsule. The origin of 'this structure is still in doubt, some observers maintaining that it is a product of the investing mesoderm, while others hold it to be a product of the lens epithelium.
It is interesting from the standpoint of developmental mechanics to note that W. H. Lewis and Spemann have shown that in the Amphibia contact of the optic vesicle with the ectoderm is necessary for the formation of the lens, and, furthermore, if the vesicle be transplanted to other regions of the body of a larva, a lens will be developed from the ectoderm with which it is then in contact, even in the abdominal region,
The Development of the Optic Cup.- - When the invagination of the outer wall of the optic bulb is completed, the margins of the resulting cup are opposite the sides of the lens vesicle (Fig. 268), but with the enlargement of the lens and cup the margins of the latter gradually come to lie in front of - that is to say, upon the outer surface of - the lens, forming the boundary of the opening known as the pupil. The lens, consequently, is brought to lie within the mouth of the optic cup, and that portion of the latter which covers the lens takes part in the formation of the iris and the adjacent ciliary body, while its posterior portion gives rise to the retina.
The chorioidal fissure normally disappears during the sixth or seventh week of development by a fusion of its lips, and not until this is accomplished does the term cup truly describe the form assumed by the optic bulb after the invagination of its outer wall. In certain cases the lips of the fissure fail to unite perfectly, producing the defect of the eye known as coloboma; this may vary in its extent, sometimes affecting both the iris and the retina and forming what is termed coloboma iridis, and at others being confined to the retinal portion of the cup, in which case it is termed coloboma chorioidae.
Up to a certain stage the differentiation of the two layers which form the optic cup proceeds along similar lines, in both the ciliary and retinal regions. The layer which represents the original internal portion of the bulb does not thicken as the cup increases in size, and becomes also the seat of a deposition of dark pigment, whence it may be termed the pigment layer of the cup; while the other layer - â– that formed by the invagination of the outer portion of the bulb, and which may be termed the retinal layer - remains much thicker (Fig. 268) and in its proximal portions even increases in thickness. Later, however, the development of the ciliary and retinal portions of the retinal layers differs, and it will be convenient to consider first the history of the ciliary portion.
The Development of the Iris and Ciliary Body
The first change noticeable in the ciliary portion of the retinal layer is its thinning out, a process which continues until the layer consists, like the pigment layer, of but a single layer of cells (Fig. 271), the transition of which to the thicker retinal portion of the layer is somewhat abrupt and corresponds to what is termed the ora serrata in adult anatomy. In embryos of 10.2 cm. the retinal layer throughout its entire extent is readily distinguishable from the pigment layer by the absence in it of all pigmentation, but in older forms this distinction gradually diminishes in the iris region, the retinal layer there acquiring pigment and forming the uvea.
When the anterior chamber of the eye is formed by the splitting of the mesoderm which has grown in between the superficial ectoderm and the outer surface of the lens, the peripheral portions of its posterior (inner) wall are in relation with the ciliary portion of the optic cup and give rise to the stroma of the ciliary body and of the iris (Fig. 271), this latter being continuous with the tunica vasculosa lentis so long as that structure persists (Fig. 278). In embryos of about 14.5 cm. the ciliary portion of the cup becomes thrown into radiating folds (Fig. 271), as if by a too rapid growth, and into the folds lamellae of mesoderm project from the stroma. These folds occur not only throughout the region of the ciliary body, but also extend into the iris region, where, however, they are but temporary structures, disappearing entirely by the end of the fifth month. The folds in the region of the corpus ciliare persist and produce the ciliary processes of the adult eye.
Embedded in the substance of the iris stroma in the adult are non-striped muscle-fibers, which constitute the sphincter and dilatator iridis. It has long been supposed that these fibers were differentiated from the stroma of the iris, but recent observations have shown that they arise from the cells of the pigment layer of the optic cup, the sphincter appearing near the pupillary border (Fig. 271, Sph) while the dilatator is more peripheral.
Fig. 271. - Radial Section through the Iris of an Embryo of 19 cm. AE, Pigment layer; CC, ciliary folds; IE, retinal layer; I.Str, iris stroma; Pm, pupillary membrane; Rs, marginal sinus; Sph, sphincter iridis. - (Szili.)
The Development of the Retina
Throughout the retinal region of the cup the pigment layer, undergoing the same changes as in the ciliary region, forms the pigment layer of the retina (Fig. 272, p). The retinal layer increases in thickness and early becomes differentiated into two strata (Fig. 268), a thicker one lying next the pigment layer and containing numerous nuclei, and a thinner one containing no nuclei. The thinner layer, from its position and structure, suggests an homology with the marginal velum of the central nervous system, and probably becomes converted into the nerve-fiber layer of the adult retina, the axis-cylinder processes of the ganglion cells passing into it on their way to the optic nerve. The thicker layer similarly suggests a comparison with the mantle layer of the cord and brain, and in embryos of 38 mm. it becomes differentiated into two secondary layers (Fig. 272), that nearest the pigment layer if) consisting of smaller and more deeply staining nuclei, probably representing the rod and cone and bipolar cells of the adult retina, while the inner layer, that nearest the marginal velum, has larger nuclei and is presumably composed of the ganglion cells.
Fig. 272. - Portion of a Transverse Section of the Retina of a New-born Rabbit. ch, Chorioid coat; g, ganglion-cell layer; r, outer layer of nuclei; p, pigment layer. - (Falchi.)
Little is as yet known concerning the further differentiation of the nervous elements of the human retina, but the history of some of them has been traced in the cat, in which, as in other mammals, the histogenetic processes take place at a relatively later period than in man. Of the histogenesis of the inner layer the information is
Fig. 273. - Diagram showing the Development of the Retinal Elements.
a, Cone cell in the unipolar, and b, in the bipolar stage; c, rod cells in the unipolar, and d, in the bipolar stage; e, bipolar cells; /and i, amacrine cells; g, horizontal cells; h, ganglion cells; k, Muller's fiber; I, external limiting membrane. - (Kallius, after Cajal.)
rather scant, but it may be stated that the ganglion cells are the earliest of all the elements of the retina to become recognizable. The rod and cone cells, when first distinguishable, are unipolar cells (Fig. 273, a and c), their single processes extending outward from the cell-bodies to the external limiting membrane which bounds the outer surface of the retinal layer. Even at an early stage the cone cells (a) are distinguishable from the rod cells (c) by their more decided reaction to silver salts, and at first both kinds of cells are scattered throughout the thickness of the layer from which they arise. Later, a fine process grows out from the inner end of each cell, which thus assumes a bipolar form (Fig. 2 73 , b and d) , and, later still, the cells gradually migrate toward the external limiting membrane, beneath which they form a definite layer in the adult. In the meantime there appears opposite the outer end of each cell a rounded eminence projecting from the outer surface of the external limiting membrane into the pigment layer. The eminences over the cone cells are larger than those over the rod cells, and later, as both increase in length, they become recognizable by their shape as the rods and cones.
The bipolar cells are not easily distinguishable in the early stages of their differentiation from the other cells with which thy are mingled, but it is believed that they are represented by cells which are bipolar when the rod and cone cells are still in a unipolar condition (Fig. 273, e). If this identification be correct, then it is noteworthy that at first their outer processes extend as far as the external limiting membrane and must later shorten or fail to elongate until their outer ends lie in what is termed the outer granular layer of the retina, where they stand in relation to the inner ends of the rod and cone cell processes. Of the development of the amacrine (/", i) and horizontal cells (g) of the retina little is known. From their position in new-born kittens it seems probable that the former are derived from cells of the same layer as the ganglion cells, while the horizontal cells may belong to the outer layer.
In addition to the various nerve-elements mentioned above, the retina also contains neuroglial elements known as Muller's fibers (Fig. 273, k), which traverse the entire thickness of the retina. The development of these cells has not yet been thoroughly traced, but they resemble closely the ependymal cells observable in early stages of the spinal cord.
The Development of the Optic Nerve
The observations on the development of the retina have shown very clearly that the great majority of the fibers of the optic nerve are axis-cylinders of the ganglion cells of the retina and grow from these cells along the optic stalk toward the brain. Their embryonic history has been traced most thoroughly in rat embryos (Robinson), and what follows is based upon what has been observed in that animal.
The optic stalk, being an outgrowth from the brain, is at first a hollow structure, its cavity communicating with that of the third ventricle at one end and with that of the optic bulb at the other. When the chorioid fissure is developed, it extends, as has already been described, for some distance along the posterior surface of the stalk and has lying in it a portion of the hyaloid artery. Later, when the lips of the fissure fuse, the artery becomes enclosed within the stalk to form the arteria centralis retina of the adult (Fig. 276). By the formation of the fissure the original cavity of the distal portion of the stalk becomes obliterated, and at the same time the ventral and posterior walls of the stalk are brought into continuity with the retinal layer of the optic cup, and so opportunity is given for the passage of the axis-cylinders of the ganglion cells along those walls (Fig. 274). At an early stage a section of the proximal portion of the optic stalk (Fig. 275, A) shows the central cavity surrounded by a number of nuclei representing the mantle layer, and surrounding these a non-nucleated layer, resembling the marginal velum and continuous distally with the similar layer of the retina. When the ganglion cells of the latter begin to send out their axis-cylinder processes, these pass into the retinal marginal velum and converge in this layer toward the bottom of the chorioidal fissure, so reaching the ventral wall of the optic stalk, in the velum of which they may be distinguished in rat embryos of 4 mm., and still more clearly in those of 9 mm. (Fig. 275, A). Later, as the fibers become more numerous, they gradually invade the lateral and finally the dorsal
Fig. 2 74. - Diagrammatic Longitudinal Section of the Optic Cup and Stalk passing through the chorioid fisSURE.
Ah, Hyaloid artery; L, lens; On, fibers of the optic nerve; Os, optic stalk; PI, pigment layer, and R, retinal layer of the retina.
THE OPTIC NERVE
walls of the stalk, and, at the same time the mantle cells of the stalk become more scattered and assume the form of connective-tissue (neuroglia) cells, while the original cavity of the stalk is gradually obliterated (Fig. 275, B). Finally, the stalk becomes a solid mass of nerve-fibers, among which the altered mantle cells are scattered.
Fig. 275. - Transverse Sections through the Proximal Part of the Optic Stalk of Rat Embryos of (A) 9 mm. and (5) 11 mm. - (Robinson.)
From what has been stated above it will be seen that the sensory cells of the eye belong to a somewhat different category from those of the other sense-organs. Embryologically they are a specialized portion of the mantle layer of the medullary canal, whereas in the other organs they are peripheral structures either representing or being associated with representatives of posterior root ganglion cells. Viewed from this standpoint, and taking into consideration the fact that the sensory portion of the retina is formed from the invaginated part of the optic bulb, some light is thrown upon the inverted arrangement of the retinal elements, the rods and cones being directed away from the source of light. The normal relations of the mantle layer and marginal velum are retained in the retina, and the latter serving as a conducting layer for the axis-cylinders of the mantle layer (ganglion) cells, the layer of nerve-fibers becomes interposed between the source of light and the sensory cells. Furthermore, it may be pointed out that if the differentiation of the retina be imagined to take place before the closure of the medullary canal - a condition which is indicated in some of the lower vertebrates - there would be then no inversion of the elements, this peculiarity being due to the conversion of the medullary plate into a tube, and more especially to the fact that the retina develops from the outer wall of the optic cup. In certain reptiles in which an eye is developed in connection with the epiphysial outgrowths of the diencephalon, the retinal portion of this pineal eye is formed from the inner layer of the bulb, and in this case there is no inversion of the elements.
A justification of the exclusion of the optic nerve from the category which includes the other cranial nerves has now been presented. For if the retina be regarded as a portion of the central nervous system, it is clear that the nerve is not a nerve at all in the strict sense of that word, but is a tract, confined throughout its entire extent within the central nervous system and comparable to such groups of fibers as the direct cerebellar or fillet tracts of that system.
The Development of the Vitreous Humor. - It has already been pointed out (p. 448) that a blood-vessel, the hyaloid artery, accompanied by some mesodermal tissue makes its way into the cavity
Fig. 276. - Reconstruction of a Portion of the Eye of an Embryo of 13.8 mm. ah, Hyaloid artery; ch, chorioid coat; /, lens; r, retina. - (His.) of the optic cup through the chorioid fissure. On the closure of the fissure the artery becomes enclosed within the optic stalk and appears to penetrate the retina, upon the surface of which its branches ramify. In the embryo the artery does not, however, terminate in these branches as it does in the adult, but is continued on through the cavity of the optic cup (Fig. 276) to reach the lens, around which it sends branches to form the tunica vasculosa lentis.
According to some authors, the formation of the vitreous humor is closely associated with the development of this artery, the humor being merely a transudate from it, while others have maintained that it is a derivative of the mesoderm which accompanies the vessel, and is therefore to be regarded as a peculiar gelatinous form of connective tissue. More recently, however, renewed observations by several authors have resulted in the deposition of the mesoderm from the chief role in the formation of the vitreous and the substitution in it of the retina. At an early stage of development delicate protoplasmic processes may be seen projecting from the surface of the retinal layer into the cavity of the optic cup, these processes probably arising from those cells which will later form the Muller's
Fig. 277. - Transverse Section through the Ciliary Region of a Chick Embryo
of Sixteen Days. ac, Anterior chamber of the eye; cj, conjunctiva; co, cornea; i, iris; I, lens; mc, ciliary muscle; rl, retinal layer of optic cup; sf, spaces of Fontana; si, suspensory ligament of the lens; v, vitreous humor. - (Angelucci.)
(neuroglia) fibers of the retina. As development proceeds they increase in length, forming a dense and very fine fibrillar reticulum traversing the space between the lens and the retina and constituting the primary vitreous humor. The formation of the fibers is especially active in the ciliary portion of the retina and it is probable that it is from some of the fibers developing in this region that the suspensory ligament of the lens (zonula Zinnii) (Fig. 277, si) is formed spaces which occur between the fibers of the ligament enlarging to produce a cavity traversed by scattered fibers and known as the canal of Petit.
THE CORNEA
A participation of similar protoplasmic prolongations from the cells of the lens in the formation of the vitreous humor has been maintained (von Lenhossek) and as strenuously denied. But it is generally admitted that at the time when the hyaloid artery penetrates the vitreous to form the tunica vasculosa lentis it carries with it certain mesodermal elements, whose fate is at present uncertain. It has been held that they take part in the formation of the definitive vitreous, which, according to this view, is of mixed origin, being partly ectodermal and partly mesodermal (Van P6e), and, on the contrary, it has been maintained that they eventually undergo complete degeneration, the vitreous being of purely ectodermal origin (von Kolliker).
The degeneration of the mesodermal elements which the latter view supposes is associated with the degeneration of the hyaloid artery. This begins in human embryos in the third month and is completed during the ninth month, the only trace after birth of the existence of the vessel being a more fluid consistency of the axis of the vitreous humor, this more fluid portion representing the space originally occupied by the artery and forming what is termed the hyaloid canal (canal ofCloquet).
The Development of the Outer Coat of the Eye, of the Cornea, and of the Anterior Chamber. - Soon after the formation of the optic bulb a condensation of the mesoderm cells around it occurs, forming a capsule. Over the medial portions of the optic cup the further differentiation of this capsule is comparatively simple, resulting in the formation of two layers, an inner vascular and an outer denser and fibrous, the former becoming the chorioid coat of the adult eye and the latter the sclera.
More laterally, however, the processes are more complicated. After the lens has separated from the surface ectoderm a thin layer of mesoderm grows in between the two structures and later gives place to a layer of homogeneous substance in which a few cells,
The Anterior Chamber Of The Eye
more numerous laterally than at the center, are embedded. Still later cells from the adjacent mesenchyme grow into the layer, which increases considerably in thickness, and blood-vessels also grow into that portion of it which is in contact with the outer surface of the lens. At this stage the interval between the surface ectoderm and the lens is occupied by a solid mass of mesodermal tissue (Fig. 278, co and tv), but as development proceeds, small spaces (ac) filled with fluid begin to appear toward the inner portion of the mass, and these, increasing in number and size, eventually fuse together to form a single cavity which divides the mass into an inner and an outer portion. The cavity is the anterior chamber of the eye, and it has served to separate the cornea (co) from the tunica vasculosa lentis (tv) , and, extending laterally in all directions, it also separates from the cornea the mesenchyme which rests upon the marginal portion of the optic cup and constitutes the stroma of the iris. Cells arrange themselves on the corneal surface of the cavity to form a continuous endothelial layer, and the mesenchyme which forms the peripheral boundary of the cavity assumes a fibrous character and forms the ligamentum pectinatum iridis, among the fibers of which cavities, known as the spaces of Fontana (Fig. 277, sf), appear. Beyond the margins of the cavity the corneal tissue is directly continuous with the sclerotic, beneath the margin of which is a distinctly thickened portion of mesenchyme resting upon the ciliary processes and forming the stroma of the ciliary body, as well as giving rise to the muscle tissue which constitutes the ciliary muscle (Figs. 277 and 278, mc).
Fig. 278. - Transverse Section through the Ciliary Region of a Pig Embryo or 23 MM. ac, Anterior chamber of the eye; co, cornea; ec, ectoderm; I, lens; mc, ciliary muscle; p, pigment layer of the optic cup; r, retinal layer; tv, tunica vasculosa lentis. - (Angelucci.)
The ectoderm which covers the outer surface of the eye does not proceed beyond the stage when it consists of several layers of cells, and never develops a stratum corneum. In the corneal region it rests directly upon the corneal tissue, which is thickened slightly upon its outer surface to form the anterior elastic lamina; more peripherally, however, a quantity of loose mesodermal tissue lies between the ectoderm and the outer surface of the sclerotic, and, together with the ectoderm, forms the conjunctiva (Fig. 277, cj).
The Development of the Accessory Apparatus of the Eye. - The eyelids make their appearance at an early stage as two folds of skin, one a short distance above and the other below the cornea. The center of the folds is at first occupied by indifferent mesodermal tissue, which later becomes modified to form the connective tissue of the lids and the tarsal cartilage, the muscle tissue probably secondarily growing into the lids as a result of the spreading of the platysma over the face, the orbicularis oculi apparently being a derivative of that sheet of muscle tissue.
At about the beginning of the third month the lids have become sufficiently large to meet one another, whereupon the thickened epithelium which has formed upon their edges unites and the lids fuse together, in which condition they remain until shortly before birth. During the stage of fusion the eyelashes (Fig. 279, h) develop at the edges of the lids, having the same developmental history as ordinary hairs, and from the fused epithelium of each lid there grow upward or downward, as the case may be, into the mesodermic tissue, solid rods of ectoderm, certain of which early give off numerous short lateral processes and become recognizable as the tarsal (Meibomian) glands (m), while others retain the simple cylindrical form and represent the glands of Moll. When the eyelids separate, these solid ingrowths become hollow by a breaking down of their
Fig. 279. - Section through the Margins of the Fused Eyelids in an Embryo^ of Six Months. i "1
h, Eyelash; //, lower lid; m, tarsal gland; mu, muscle bundle; ul, upper lid.
Seidl.)
-(Schweigger
central cells, just as in the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands of the skin, the tarsal glands being really modifications of the former glands, while the glands of Moll are probably to be regarded as specialized sudoriparous glands.
A third fold of skin, in addition to^the two which produce the eyelids, is also developed in connection with the eye, forming the plica semilunaris. This is a rudimentary third eyelid, representing the nictitating membrane which is fairly well developed in many of the lower mammals and especially well in birds.
THE LACHRYMAL GLAND 467
The lachrymal gland is developed at about the third month as a number of branching outgrowths of the ectoderm into the adjacent mesoderm along the outer part of the line where the epithelium of the conjunctiva becomes continuous with that covering the inner surface of the upper eyelid. As in the other epidermal glands, the outgrowths and their branches are at first solid, later becoming hollow by the degeneration of their axial cells.
The naso-lachrymal duct is developed in connection with the groove which, at an early stage in the development (Fig. 62), extends
Fig. 280. - Diagram showing the Insertions of the Lachrymal Ducts in EMBRYOS OF 40 MM. AND 170 MM.. THE CaRUNCULA LaCRIMALIS BEING FORMED IN the Latter.
The eyelids are really fused at these stages but have been represented as separate • for the sake of clearness. - (Ask.)
from the inner corner of the eye to the olfactory pit and is bounded posteriorly by the maxillary process of the first visceral arch. The epithelium lying in the floor of this groove thickens toward the begining of the sixth week to form a solid cord, which sinks into the subjacent mesoderm. From its upper end two outgrowths arise which become connected with the ectoderm of the edges of the upper and lower lids, respectively, and represent the lachrymal ducts, and, finally, the solid cord and its outgrowths acquire a lumen and a connection with the mucous membrane of the inferior meatus of the nasal cavity.
The inferior duct connects with the border of the eyelid some distance lateral to the inner angle of the eye, and between its opening and the angle a number of tarsal glands develop. The superior duct, on the other hand, opens at first close to the inner angle and later moves laterally until its opening is opposite that of the inferior duct. During this change the portion of the lower lid between the opening of the inferior duct and the angle is drawn somewhat upward, and, with its glands, forms a small reddish nodule, resting upon the plica semilunaris and known as the caruncula lacrimalis (Fig. 280).
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J. A. Hammar: " Studien iiber die Entwicklung des Vorderdarms und einiger angrenz
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Chapter XVII. Post-Natal Development
In the preceding pages attention has been directed principally to the changes which take place in the various organs during the period before birth, for, with a few exceptions, notably that of the liver, the general form and histological peculiarities of the various organs are acquired before that epoch. Development does not, however, cease with birth, and a few statements regarding the changes which take place in the interval between birth and maturity will not be out of place in a work of this kind.
The conditions which obtain during embryonic life are so different from those to which the body must later adapt itself, that arrangements, such as those connected with the placental circulation, which are of fundamental importance during the life in utero, become of little or no use, while the relative importance of others is greatly diminished, and these changes react more or less profoundly on all parts of the body. Hence, although the post-natal development consists chiefly in the growth of the structures formed during earlier stages, yet the growth is not equally rapid in all parts, and indeed in some organs there may even be a relative decrease in size. That this is true can be seen from the annexed figure (Fig. 281), which represents the body of a child and that of an adult man drawn as of the same height. The greater relative size of the head and upper part of the body in the child is very marked, and the central point of the height of the child is situated at about the level of the umbilicus, while in the man it is at the symphysis pubis.
That there is a distinct change in the geometric form of the body during growth is also well shown by the following consideration. (Thoma). Taking the average height of a new-born male as 500 mm., and that of a man of thirty years of age as 1686 mm., the height of the body will have increased from birth to adolescence
- v _â–
= 3.37 times. The child will weigh 3.1 kilos and the man
5::
66.1 kilos, and if the specific gravity of the body with the included
gases be taken in the one case as 0.90 and in the other as 0.93, then
the volume of the child's body will be 3.44 liters and that of the
man's 71.08 liters, and the increase in volume will be - - =20.66.
Fig. 281. - Child ast> }vL\x Drawn as of th* " Growth of the Brain, " Contemporary Science Series Sons.)
If the increase in volume had taken place without any alteration in the geometric form of the body, it should be equal to the cube of the increase in height; this, however, is 3-37 s =38.27, a number wellnigh twice as large as the actual increase.
But in addition to these changes, which are largely dependent upon differences in the supply of nutrition, there are others associated with alterations in the general metabolism of the body. Up to adult life the constructive metabolism or anabolism is in excess of the destructive metabolism or katabolism, but the amount of the excess is much greater during the earlier periods of development and gradually diminishes as the adult condition is approached. That this is true during intrauterine life is shown by the following figures, compiled by Donaldson:
Age in Weeks
Weight in Grams
Age in Weeks
Weight in Grams
o (ovum)
o . 0006
24
635
4
-
28
1,220
8
4
32
1,700
12
20
36
2,240
16
120
40 (birth)
3,250
20
28 5
From this table it may be seen that the embryo of eight weeks is six thousand six hundred and sixty-seven times as heavy as the ovum from which it started, and if the increase of growth for each of the succeeding periods of four weeks be represented as percentages, it will be seen that the rate of increase undergoes a rapid diminution after the sixteenth week, and from that on diminishes gradually but less rapidly, the figures being as follows :
Periods of Weeks
Percentage Increase
Periods of Weeks
Percentage Increase
8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24
400 500 137 123
24-28 28-32 32-36 36-40
92 39 32 45
That the same is true in a general way of the growth after birth may be seen from the following table, representing the average weight of the body in English males at different years from birth up to twenty-three (Roberts), and also the percentage rate of increase.
Year
Number of Cases
Weight in Kilograms
Percentage Increase
o
45i
3-2
i
-
(10.8)
(238)
2
2
14.7*
(36)*
3
41
15-4
4.8*
4
102
16.9
9-7
5
- 93
18. 1
7-i
6
224
20.1
11
7
246
22 .6
12.4
8
820
24.9
10.2
9
1,425
27.4
10
IO
1,464
30.6
"•5
ii
i,599
32.6
6-5
12
1,786
34-9
7
x 3
2,443
37-6
7-7
14
2,952
41.7
10.9
15
3,"8
46.6
11. 7
16
2,235
53-9
15-7
17
2,496
59-3
10
18
2,15°
62 .2
4.9
19
i,438
63-4
1.9
20
851
64.9
2-5
21
738
65-7
1 .2
22
542
67 .0
1.9
23
55i
67 .0
Certain interesting peculiarities in post-natal growth become apparent from an examination of this table. For while there is a general diminution in the rate of growth, yet there are marked irregularities, the most noticeable being (i) a rather marked diminution during the eleventh and twelfth years, followed by (2) a rapid
- From a comparison with other similar tables there is little doubt but that the weight given above for the second year is too high to be accepted as a good average
Age
LbsM
14
1 Z 3 * 5 6 f a 9 ID ft 12 13 14 1$ 16 17 19
II
i
2 3 4-5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 J& I
5 /
5 17 18
Age Lbs/4 " 12 " 10 •■8 " 6 " * ' Z
Fig. 282. - Curves Showing the Annual Increase in Weight in (I) Boys and (II) Girls.
The faint line represents the curve from British statistics, the dotted line that from American (Bowditch), and the heavy line the average of the two. Before the sixth year the data are unreliable. - (Stephenson.)
acceleration which reaches its maximum at about the sixteenth year and then very rapidly diminishes. These irregularities may be more
Consequently the percentage increase for the second year is too high and that for the third year too low.
It may be mentioned that the weights in the original table are expressed in pounds avoirdupois and have been here converted into kilograms, and further the figures representing the percentage increase have been added.
clearly seen from the charts on page 474, which represent the curves obtained by plotting the annual increase of weight in boys (Chart I) and girls (Chart II). The diminution and acceleration of growth referred to above are clearly observable and it is interesting to note that they occur at earlier periods in girls than in boys, the diminution occurring in girls at the eighth and ninth years and the acceleration reaching its maximum at the thirteenth year.
Considering, now, merely the general diminution in the rate of growth which occurs from birth to adult life, it becomes interesting to note to what extent the organs which are more immediately associated with the metabolic activities of the body undergo a relative reduction in weight. The most important of these organs is undoubtedly the liver, but with it there must also be considered the thyreoid and thymus glands, and probably the suprarenal bodies. In all these organs there is a marked diminution in size as compared with the weight of the body, as will be seen from the following table (H. Vierordt), which also includes data regarding other organs in which a marked relative diminution, not in all cases readily explainable, occurs.
ABSOLUTE WEIGHT IN GRAMS.
New-born and Adult.
Liver
Thyreoid
Thymus
Suprarenal Bodies
Spleen
Heart
Kidney
„ . Spmal Brain _; . Cord
I4I-7 1,819.0
4-85 33-8
8.15 26.9
7-05 7-4
10.6 163.0
23.6 300.6
23-3 3°5-9
381.0 1,430.9
5-5 39-iS
PERCENTAGE WEIGHT OF ENTIRE BODY New-born and Adult.
Liver
Thyreoid
Thymus
Suprarenal Bodies
Spleen
Heart
Kidney
Brain
Spinal Cord
4-57 2 -57
0.16 0.05
0.26 0.04
0.23 O.OI
o-34 0.25
0.76 0.46
0-7S 0.46
12 .29 2 .16
0.18 0.06
476
Recent observations by Hammar render necessary some modification of the figures given for the thymus in the above table. He finds the average weight of the gland at birth to be 13.26 grms., and that the weight increases up to puberty, averaging 37.52 grms. between the ages of 11 and 15. After that period it gradually diminishes, falling to 16.27 g rm sbetween 36 and 45, and to 6.0 grms. between 66 and 75. Expressed in percentage of the body weight this gives a value in the new-born of 0.42 and in an individual of 50 years of 0.02, a difference much more striking than that shown in Vierordt's table.
It must be mentioned, however, that the gland is subject to much individual variation, being largely influenced by nutritive conditions.
The remaining organs, not included in the tables given above, when compared with the weight of the body, either show an increase or remain practically the same.
ABSOLUTE WEIGHT IN GRAMS. New-born and Adult.
Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues
Skeleton
Stomach and Musculature , T Intestines
Pancreas
Lungs
611.75 11,765.0
425-5 ii,575-°
776.5 65 28,732.0 1,364
3-5 97.6
54-i 994-9
PERCENTAGE OF BODY-WEIGHT. New-born and Adult.
Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues
Skeleton
Musculature
Stomach and Intestines
Pancreas Lungs
19-73 17.77
13-7 17.48
2 5-05 43-40
2 . 1 2 .06
0. 11 015
i-75 i-5o
From this table it will be seen that the greatest increment of weight is that furnished by the muscles, the percentage weight of which is one and three-fourths times as great in the adult as in the child. The difference does not, however, depend upon the differentiation of additional muscles; there are just as many muscles in the new-born child as in the adult, and the increase is due merely to an enlargement of organs already present. The percentage weight of the digestive tract, pancreas, and lungs remains practically the same, while in the case of the skeleton there is an appreciable increase, and in that of the skin and subcutaneous tissue a slight
Fig. 283. - Longitudinal Section through the Sacrum of a New-born Female Child. - (Fehling.)
diminution. The latter is readily understood when it is remembered that the area of the skin, granting that the geometric form of the body remains the same, would increase as the square of the length, while the mass of the body would increase as the cube, and hence in comparing weights the skin might be expected to show a diminution even greater than that shown in the table.
The increase in the weight of the skeleton is due to a certain extent to growth, but chiefly to a completion of the ossification of the cartilage largely present at birth. A comparison of the weights of this system of organs does not, therefore, give evidence of the many changes of form which may be perceived in it during the period under consideration, and attention may be drawn to some of the more important of these changes.
In the spinal column one of the most noticeable peculiarities observable in the new-born child is the absence of the curves so characteristic of the adult. These curves are due partly to the weight of the body, transmitted through the spinal column to the hipjoint in the erect position, and partly to the action of the muscles, and it is not until the erect position is habitually assumed and the musculature gains in development that the curvatures become pronounced. Even the curve of the sacrum, so marked in the adult, is but slight in the new-born child, as may be seen from Fig. 283, in which the ventral surfaces of the first and second sacral vertebrae look more ventrally than posteriorly, so that there is no distinct promontory.
But, in addition to the appearance of the curvatures, other changes also occur after birth, the entire column becoming much more slender and the proportions of the lumbar and sacral vertebrae becoming quite different, as may be seen from the following table (Aeby) :
Lengths Of The Vertebral Regions Expressed As Percentages Of The Entire Column
Age
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
New-born child
25.6 23-3 20.3 19.7 22 .1
47-5 46.7 45-6 47.2 46.6
26.8
Male 2 years
30.0
Male 5 years
34.2
Male 1 1 years Male adult
33-i 31.6
The cervical region diminishes in length, while the lumbar gains, the thoracic remaining approximately the same. It may be noticed, furthermore, that the difference between the two variable regions is greater during youth than in the adult, a condition possibly associated with the general more rapid development of the lower portion of the body made necessary by its imperfect development during fetal life. The difference is due to changes in the vertebrae, the intervertebral disks retaining approximately the same relative thickness throughout the period under consideration.
The form of the thorax also alters, for whereas in the adult it is barrel-shaped, narrower at both top and bottom than in the middle, in the new-born child it is rather conical, the base of the cone being below. The difference depends upon slight differences in the form and articulations of the ribs, these being more horizontal in the child and the opening of the thorax directed more directly upward than in the adult.
As regards the skull, the processes of growth are very complicated. Cranium and brain react on one another, and hence, in harmony with the relatively enormous size of the brain at birth, the cranial cavity has a relatively greater volume in the child than in the adult. The fact that the entire roof and a considerable part of the sides of the skull are formed of membrane bones which, at birth, are not in sutural contact with one another throughout, gives opportunity for considerable modifications, and, furthermore, the base of the skull at the early stage still contains a considerable amount of unossified cartilage. Without entering into minute details, it may be stated that the principal general changes which the skull undergoes in its post-natal development are (i) a relative elongation of its anterior portion and (2) an increase in the relative height of the maxillae.
If a line be drawn between the central points of the occipital condyles, it will divide the base of the skull into two portions, which in the child's skull are equal in length. The portion of the skull in front of a similar line in the adult skull is very much greater than that which lies behind, the proportion between the two parts being 5:3, against 3:3 in the child (Froriep). There has, therefore, been a decidedly more rapid growth of the anterior portion of the skull, a growth which is asssociated with a corresponding increase in the dorso-ventral dimensions of the maxillae. These bones, indeed, play a very important part in determining the proportions of the skull at different periods. They are so intimately associated with the cranial portions of the skull that their increase necessitates a corresponding increase in the anterior part of the cranium, and their increase in this direction stands in relation to the development of the teeth, the eight teeth which are developed in each maxilla (including the premaxilla) in the adult requiring a longer bone than do the five teeth of the primary dentition, these again requiring a greater length when completely developed than they do in their immature condition in the new-born child.
Fig. 284. - Skull of a New-born Child and of an Adult Man, Drawn as of Approximately the Same Size. - (Henke.)
But far more striking than the difference just described is that in the relative height of the cranial and facial regions (Fig. 284). It has been estimated that the volumes of the two portions have a ratio of 8: 1 in the new-born child, 4: 1 at five years of age, and 2:1 in the adult skull (Froriep) , and these differences are due principally to changes in the vertical dimensions of the maxillae. As with the increase in length, the increase now under consideration is, to a certain extent at least, associated with the development of the teeth, hese structures calling into existence the alveolar processes which ,re practically wanting in the child at birth. But a more important actor is the development of the maxillary sinuses, the practically olid bodies of the maxillae becoming transformed into hollow shells, rhese cavities, together with the sinuses of the sphenoid and frontal >ones, which are also post-natal developments, seem to stand in elation to the increase in length of the anterior portion of the skull, erving to diminish the weight of the portion of the skull in front »f the occipital condyles and so relieving the muscles of the neck of a onsiderable strain to which they would otherwise be subjected.
These changes in the proportions of the skull have, of course, nuch to do with the changes in the general proportions of the face. 3ut the changes which take place in the mandible are also imporant in this connection, and are similar to those of the maxillae in leing associated with the development of the teeth. In the new10m child the horizontal ramus is proportionately shorter than in he adult, while the vertical ramus is very short and joins the Lorizontal one at an obtuse angle. The development of the teeth if the primary dentition, and later of the three molars, necessitates ,n elongation of the horizontal ramus equivalent to that occurring n the maxillae, and, at the same time, the separation of the alveolar •orders of the two bones requires an elongation of the vertical ramus f the condyle is to preserve its contact with the mandibular fossa, ,nd this, again, demands a diminution of the angle at which the ami join if the teeth of the two jaws are to be in proper apposition.
In the bones of the appendicular skeleton secondary epiphysial enters play an important part in the ossification, and in few are hese centers developed prior to birth, while the union of the epiphyes to the main portions of the bones takes place only toward maurity. The dates at which the various primary and secondary enters appear, and the time at which they unite, may be seen from he following table:
31
482
POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT UPPER EXTREMITY.
Bone
Appearance of
Appearance of Secondary
Fusion of
Primary Center
Centers
Centers
Clavicle
6th week.
(At sternal end) 17th year.
20th year.
Scapula.
Body
8th week. <.
2 acromial 15th year.
2 on vertical border 16th year.
> 20th year.
Coracoid ....
1 st year.
15 th year.
Head 1st year.
Great tuberosity 3d year.
> 20th year.
Lesser tuberosity 5th year.
J
Humerus
â– jth week.
Inner condyle 5th year.
1 8th year.
Capitellum 3d year.
1
Trochlea 10th year.
[• 17 th year.
Outer condyle 14th year.
J
Ulna
jth week.
Olecranon 10th year.
16th year.
Distal epiphysis 4th year.
1 8th year.
Radius
jth week.
Proximal epiphysis 5th year.
17 th year.
Distal epiphysis 2d year.
20th year.
Capita turn
1st year.
Hamatum
2d year.
Triquetrum . . .
3d year.
4th year.
Multangulum
5th year.
majus.
Navicular
6th year.
Multangulum
8th year.
minus.
Pisiform
12 th year.
Metacarpals . . .
gth week.
3d year.
20th year.
Phalanges
gth-nth week.
3d~5th years.
17 th-! 8th years.
The dates in italics are before birth.
POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT LOWER EXTREMITY.
483
Bone.
Appearance
of
Appearance of Secondary Fusion of
Primary Center
Centers
Centers
gth week.
Crest 15th year.
Anterior inferior spine 15 th year.
V
â– 22d year.
Ischium
4th month.
Tuberosity 15th year.
Pubis
4th month.
Crest 1 Sth year.
Patella
Cartilage appears at 4th month, ossification in 3d year.
Head 1st year.
20 th year.
Femur
â– jth week.
J
Great trochanter 4th year. Lesser trochanter 13 th- 14th year. Condyle gth month.
19 th year. 1 Sth year. 2 1 st year.
Tibia
jth week.
1
Head end of gth month. Distal end 2d year.
2ist-2 5thyear. 1 Sth year.
Fibula
Sth week.
/ \
Upper epiphysis 5th year. Lower epiphysis 2d year.
21st year. 20th year.
Talus
jth month.
Calcaneus
6th month.
10th year.
1 6 th year.
Cuboid
A few days after birth.
Navicular
4th year.
Cuneiforms.
1 st year.
Metatarsals
gth week.
3d year.
20th year.
Phalanges
gth-i2th week
4th-8th years.
I7th-i8th years.
The dates in italics are before birth.
So far as the actual changes in the form of the appendicular bones are concerned, these are most marked in the case of the lower limb. The ossa innominata alter somewhat in their proportions after birth, a fact which may conveniently be demonstrated by considering the changes which occur in the proportions of the pelvic diameters, although it must be remembered that these diameters are greatly influenced by the development of the sacral curve. Taking the conjugate diameter of the pelvic brim as a unit for comparison, the antero-posterior (dorso-ventral) and transverse diameters of the child and adult have the proportions shown in the table on the opposite page (Fehling).
It will be seen from this that the general form of the pelvis in the new-born child is that of a cone, gradually diminishing in diameter from the brim to the outlet, a condition very different from what obtains in the adult. Furthermore, it is interesting to note
Diameter.
New-born
Adult
New-born
Female.
Female.
Male.
i .00
1 .00
1 .00
1. 19
1 .292
1 .20
0.96
1. 19
0.91
1 .01
1. 151
0.99
0.91
1.05
0.78
0.83
i-i54
0.84
Adult Male.
(Conjugata vera . Transverse
>, f Antero-posterior
rt 1
U y Transverse
-^ ( Antero-posterior
O Transverse
1.294 1. 18 1. 14 1 .07
1 -153
that sexual differences in the form of the pelvis are clearly distinguishable at birth; indeed, according to Fehling's .observations, they become noticeable during the fourth month of intrauterine development.
The upper epiphysis of the femur is entirely unossified at birth and consists of a cartilaginous mass, much broader than the rather slender shaft and possessing a deep notch upon its upper surface (Fig. 285). This notch marks off the great trochanter from the head of the bone, and at this stage of development there is no neck, the head being practically sessile. As development proceeds the inner upper portion of the shaft grows more rapidly than the outer portion, carrying the head away from the great trochanter and forming the neck of the bone. The acetabulum is shallower at birth than in the adult and cannot contain more than half the head of the femur; consequently the articular portion of the head is much less extensive than in the adult.
It is a well-known fact that the new-born child habitually holds the feet with the soles directed toward one another, a position only reached in the adult with some difficulty, and associated with this supination or inversion there is a pronounced extension of the foot (i. e., flexion upon the leg as usually understood; see p. 102), it being difficult to flex the child's foot beyond a line at right angles with the axis of the leg. These conditions are due apparently to the extensor and tibialis muscles being relatively shorter and the opposing muscles relatively longer than in the adult, and with the elongation or shortening, as the case may be, of the muscles on the assumption
Fig. 2S5. - Longitudinal Sections of the Head of the Femur of (.4) New-born Child and (B) a Later Stage of Development.
ep, Epiphysial center for the head; h, head; /, trochanter. - (Henke.)
of the erect position, the bones in the neighborhood of the anklejoint come into new relations to one another, the result being a modification of the form of the articular surfaces, especially of the talus (astragalus). In the child the articular cartilage of the trochlear surface of this bone is continued onward to a considerable extent upon the neck of the bone, which comes into contact with the tibia in the extreme extension possible in the child. In the adult, however, such extreme extension being impossible, the cartilage upon the neck gradually disappears. The supination in the child brings the talus
in close contact with the inner surface of the calcaneus and with the sustentaculum tali; with the alteration of position a growth of these portions of the calcaneus occurs, the sustentaculum becoming higher and broader, and so becoming an obstacle in the way of supination in the adult. At the same time a greater extent of the outer surface of the talus comes into contact with the lateral malleolus, with the result that the articular surface is considerably increased on that portion of the bone. Marked changes in the form of the talo-navicular articulation also occur, but their consideration would lead somewhat further than seems desirable.
Literature
C. Aeby: "Die Altersverschiedenheiten der menschlichen Wirbelsaule." Archiv fur Anal, und Physiol., Anat. Abth., 1879. W. Camerer: " Utersuchungen iiber Massenwachsthum und Langen wachsthum der Kinder," Jahrbuchfiir Kinderheilkunde, xxxvi, 1893. H. H. Donaldson: "The Growth of the Brain," London, 1895. H. Fehling: "Die Form des Beckens beim Fotus und Neugeborenen und ihre Bezie hung zu der beim Erwachsenen," Archiv fur Gynakol., x, 1876. H. Friedenthal: " Das Wachsthum des Korpergewichtes des Menschen und anderer Saugethiere in verschiedenen Lebensaltern," Zeit. allgem. Physiol., ix, 1909. J. A. Hammar: "Ueber Gewicht, Involution und Persistenz der Thymus im Post fotalleben des Menschen," Archiv fur Anat. und Phys., Anat. Abth., Supplement, 1906. W. Henke: " Anatomie des Kindersalters," Handbuch der Kinder krankheiten (Cerhardt) , Tubingen, 1881. C. Hennig: "Das kindliche Becken," Archiv fur Anat. und Physiol., Anat. Abth., 1880. C. Huter: "Anatomische Studien an den Extremitatengelenken Neugeborener und Erwachsener," Archiv fur patholog. Anat. und Physiol., xxv, 1862. W. Stephenson: "On the Relation of Weight to Height and the Rate of Growth in Man," TheLancet, 11, 1888. R. Thoma: " Untersuchungen iiber die Grosse und das Gewicht der anatomischen Bestandtheile des menschlichen Korpers," Leipzig, 1882. H. Vierordt: "Anatomische, Physiologische und Physikalische Daten und Tabellen," Jena, 1893. H. Welcker: "Untersuchungen iiber Wachsthum und Bau des menschlichen Schadels," Leipzig, 1862.
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McMurrich JP. The Development Of The Human Body. (1914) P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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