Endocrine System Development

Embryology - 25 Apr 2024 Expand to Translate
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Introduction

Human adrenal gland (Week 10)

The endocrine system resides within specific endocrine organs and both organs and tissues with other specific functions. Epithelia (ectoderm and endoderm) form the majority of the “ductless” endocrine glands like gastrointestinal and skin associated “ducted” glands. Differentiation of several also organs involves a epithelial/mesenchye interaction, seen in repeated in many differentiation of many different tissues. The endocrine glands produce hormones, which are distributed by the vascular system to the many body tissues, subsequently these organs are richly vascularized.

Hormones are recognised by either cell surface receptors (modified amino acids, peptides, proteins) or cytoplasmic/nuclear receptors (steroids). Hormones “orchestrate” responses in other tissues, including other endocrine organs, and these overall effects can be similar or different in different tissues. In addition, these hormone effects (like music) can be rapid, slow, brief, diurnal, or long-term. Hormone effects can be mimicked, stimulated, and blocked by therapeutic drugs, nutritional and environmental chemicals.

The human fetus is dependent upon endocrine development for hormones, which support normal development. Peripheral endocrine glands (thyroid, pancreas, adrenals, gonads) form early in the second month from epithelial/mesenchye interactions and differentiate into the third month. The fetus also has a unique hormonal system that combines not only its own developing endocrine system, but also that of the corpus luteum, placenta and maternal hormones.

Abnormal endocrine development/function can impact on many different systems. For example, insufficient maternal dietary iodine impacts on fetal thyroid gland thyroid hormone production, which in turn can lead to abnormal neural development. Alternatively, we now know many environmental and therapeutic chemicals have a wide range of effects on the endocrine system.

Sex hormones from the gonads have significant effects prenatally and postnatally, specifically at puberty with a role to play in male/female biological maturity and have wide actions throughout the body.

This current page provides a general introduction to the endocrine system, use the links below to explore development of specific endocrine organs.

Historic Embryology - Endocrine
1903 Islets of Langerhans \| 1903 Pig Adrenal \| 1904 interstitial Cells \| 1908 Pancreas Different Species \| 1908 Pituitary \| 1908 Pituitary histology \| 1911 Rathke's pouch \| 1912 Suprarenal Bodies \| 1914 Suprarenal Organs \| 1915 Pharynx \| 1916 Thyroid \| 1918 Rabbit Hypophysis \| 1920 Adrenal \| 1935 Mammalian Hypophysis \| 1926 Human Hypophysis \| 1927 Adrenal \| 1927 Hypophyseal fossa \| 1930 Adrenal \| 1932 Pineal Gland and Cysts \| 1935 Hypophysis \| 1935 Pineal \| 1937 Pineal \| 1935 Parathyroid \| 1940 Adrenal \| 1941 Thyroid \| 1950 Thyroid Parathyroid Thymus \| 1957 Adrenal

Pineal

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Thyroid

Thymus

Pancreas

Some Recent Findings

Endocrine Pancreas^[1] "The transcription factor Pax6 functions in the specification and maintenance of the differentiated cell lineages in the endocrine pancreas. It has two DNA binding domains, the paired domain and the homeodomain, in addition to a C-terminal transactivation domain. The phenotype of Pax6-/- knockout mice suggests non-redundant functions of the transcription factor in the development of glucagon-expressing alpha-cells as this cell type is absent in the mutants."
Pituitary Gland Development^[2] recent review article looking at molecular mechanisms of development.

More recent papers
This table allows an automated computer search of the external PubMed database using the listed "Search term" text link. This search now requires a manual link as the original PubMed extension has been disabled. The displayed list of references do not reflect any editorial selection of material based on content or relevance. References also appear on this list based upon the date of the actual page viewing. References listed on the rest of the content page and the associated discussion page (listed under the publication year sub-headings) do include some editorial selection based upon both relevance and availability. More? References \| Discussion Page \| Journal Searches \| 2019 References \| 2020 References Search term: Endocrine Embryology <pubmed limit=5>Endocrine Embryology</pubmed>

Textbooks

In general, not dealt with as a system in many embryology textbooks, so various chapters: nervous system, head, gastrointestinal tract, reproductive organs, etc. See the online Endocrinology textbook for better descriptions of these tissues.

Endocrinology Textbook - Chapter Titles
Nussey S. and Whitehead S. Endocrinology: An Integrated Approach (2001) Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; ISBN-10: 1-85996-252-1. Chapter 1. Principles of endocrinology Chapter 2. The endocrine pancreas Chapter 3. The thyroid gland Chapter 4. The adrenal gland Chapter 5. The parathyroid glands and vitamin D Chapter 6. The gonad Chapter 7. The pituitary gland Chapter 8. Cardiovascular and renal endocrinology Full Table of Contents

Endocrinology Textbook - Table of Contents
Endocrinology - An Integrated Approach Stephen Nussey and Saffron Whitehead. St. George's Hospital Medical School, London, UK Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2001. ISBN-10: 1-85996-252-1 Principles of endocrinology Functions of hormones and their regulation Chemical signalling - endocrine, paracrine, autocrine and intracrine mechanisms Chemical classification of hormones and their synthesis Hormone synthesis Transport of hormones in the circulation and their half-lives Hormone receptors - cell surface Hormone receptors - intracellular Hormones and gene transcription Hormone receptor regulation Neuroendocrine interactions Hormones and the immune system Hormones, growth promotion and malignancy Genes, mutations and endocrine function Clinical evaluation of endocrine disorders The endocrine pancreas Glucose turnover Anabolic and catabolic phases of glucose metabolism Actions of insulin and glucagon Lipid metabolism - insulinopenia and diabetic ketosis Protein metabolism and the anabolic actions of insulin Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus Etiology of type 1 DM Prevention of type 1 DM Structure, synthesis and metabolism of insulin and glucagon Anatomical features of pancreatic islets in relation to hormone secretion and its control Control of insulin and glucagon secretion Type 2 DM Causes of DM Genetic disorders of β-cell function Counter-regulatory hormones and DM Complications of DM Macrovascular circulatory changes Microvascular changes - diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy Diabetes and the neuropathic foot Diabetes and insulin resistance of pregnancy Development of the pancreas: effects of DM on organogenesis Treatment of DM - rationale and practical considerations Hypoglycemia Physiological responses to hypoglycemia and its treatment Hypoglycemia and insulinoma Hypoglycemia in infancy Disorders of the α, γ and PP cells of the islets Clinical case questions The thyroid gland Iodine intake Anatomical features of the thyroid gland Iodine trapping and thyroid function Synthesis of thyroid hormones Actions of thyroid hormones Control of thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion Hyperthyroidism — Graves' disease Surgical anatomy and embryology of the thyroid gland Primary hypothyroidism — Hashimoto's disease and myxedema Secondary hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism in infancy and childhood Thyroid hormone resistance Non-thyroid illness (‘sick euthyroid’ syndrome) Transport and metabolism of thyroid hormones Biochemical measurements of thyroid hormone status Thyroid growth Nodular thyroid disease Thyroid cancer Clinical case questions The adrenal gland Specificity of the biological effects of adrenal steroid hormones Cholesterol and steroid synthesis in the adrenal cortex Anatomical and functional zonation in the adrenal cortex Glucocorticoid receptors Actions of glucocorticoids and clinical features of Cushing's syndrome Adrenal cortical androgens Hypothalamic control of adrenocortical steroid synthesis - CRH and vasopressin Pituitary control of adrenocortical steroids - ACTH Feedback control of glucocorticoids Excess glucocorticoids: biochemical investigation of Cushing's syndrome Measurements of cortisol in blood, urine and saliva Dynamic tests of endocrine function Imaging the adrenal gland Treatment of Cushing's syndrome Nelson's syndrome Excess adrenal androgens - congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) Deficiency of adrenocortical secretions - Addison's disease Aldosterone and the control of salt and water balance Transport and metabolism of adrenocortical steroids Selective mineralocorticoid excess and deficiency The adrenal medulla and pheochromocytoma Catecholamine synthesis and secretion Diagnosis and treatment of pheochromocytomas Clinical case questions The parathyroid glands and vitamin D Calcium and phosphate in serum and its measurement Intracellular calcium concentration Calcium and phosphate balance Hormonal control of serum Ca²⁺ and P_i concentrations Sources, metabolism and transport of vitamin D Classical actions of vitamin D on intestine and bone Parathyroid glands and PTH synthesis Control of PTH secretion Actions of PTH Hypercalcemia and primary hyperparathyroidism Hyperparathyroidism and multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) Hypercalcemia and vitamin D excess Hypercalcemia and malignancy Parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrp) Treatment of hypercalcemia Mutations of the Ca²⁺ or PTH receptors Hypocalcemia and its treatment Pseudohypoparathyroidism Vitamin D deficiency Non-classical actions of vitamin D Vitamin D resistance and rickets Hormones and the skeleton Structure, formation and function of bone Osteoporosis Paget's disease (osteitis deformans) Calcitonin and calcitonin gene-related peptide Clinical case questions The gonad Genetic determination of sexual differentiation Sexual differentiation of the gonads and internal reproductive tracts Sexual differentiation of the external genitalia Control of steroid production in the fetal gonads Puberty GnRH and the control of gonadotrophin synthesis and secretion The gonadotrophins - LH and FSH - and their actions Endocrine changes in puberty Precocious sexual development Delayed puberty Premature adrenarche Acne, hair growth and hirsutism The breast - premature development, hypoplasia and gynecomastia Testicular function Control of testicular function Transport, metabolism and actions of androgens Spermatogenesis Erection and ejaculation Ovarian control and the menstrual cycle Transport, metabolism and actions of ovarian steroids The ovary - folliculogenesis and oogenesis Non-steroidal factors in the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis Ovulation, menstruation and its problems Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) Contraception Infertility Ovulation induction and assisted conception Ovarian failure, the menopause and andropause Hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS) Clinical case questions The pituitary gland Anatomical and functional connections of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis Embryology of the pituitary gland Craniopharyngioma Blood supply of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis Sheehan's syndrome Growth and somatotrophin deficiency Growth hormone - secretory patterns and control Actions of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors GH replacement therapy GH excess - gigantism and acromegaly Pituitary adenomas - incidence and treatment Prolactinomas Prolactin and its control Circadian rhythms and the suprachiasmatic nucleus The pineal gland and melatonin Autonomic functions of the hypothalamus Obesity The neural lobe of the pituitary gland - AVP and oxytocin Clinical case questions Cardiovascular and renal endocrinology Endocrinology of heart failure Paracrine and autocrine regulation of blood pressure: the endocrinology of sepsis Hormones and blood cell production - erythropoietin Carcinoid Clinical case questions

Human Embryology (3rd ed.) Larson Chapter 9 Gastrointestinal, Chapter 10 Gonad, Kidney Chapter 12 Head
The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology (6th ed.) Moore and Persaud Chapters 10: p230-233; Ch12: p280-282; Ch13: p319-347
Lectures - Lecture - Endocrine Development | 2010 | 2009 |
The Endocrine System - An Overview (PDF)

Larsen's Human Embryology - UNSW Students
Schoenwolf, G.C., Bleyl, S.B., Brauer, P.R., Francis-West, P.H. & Philippa H. (2015). Larsen's human embryology (5th ed.). New York; Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. UNSW students have full access to this textbook edition through UNSW Library subscription (with student Zpass log-in). Chapter 9 Development of the Hypothalamus Chapter 9 Development of the Pineal Gland Chapter 9 Development of the Pituitary Chapter 14 Development of the Pancreas Chapter 15 Development of the Suprarenal Gland Chapter 16 Development of the Gonad Chapter 17 Development of the Thyroid

Historic Embryology - Endocrine
1903 Islets of Langerhans \| 1903 Pig Adrenal \| 1904 interstitial Cells \| 1908 Pancreas Different Species \| 1908 Pituitary \| 1908 Pituitary histology \| 1911 Rathke's pouch \| 1912 Suprarenal Bodies \| 1914 Suprarenal Organs \| 1915 Pharynx \| 1916 Thyroid \| 1918 Rabbit Hypophysis \| 1920 Adrenal \| 1935 Mammalian Hypophysis \| 1926 Human Hypophysis \| 1927 Adrenal \| 1927 Hypophyseal fossa \| 1930 Adrenal \| 1932 Pineal Gland and Cysts \| 1935 Hypophysis \| 1935 Pineal \| 1937 Pineal \| 1935 Parathyroid \| 1940 Adrenal \| 1941 Thyroid \| 1950 Thyroid Parathyroid Thymus \| 1957 Adrenal

Objectives

Understand the main steps in the development of the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary, pineal glands, thymus and gonads.
Have a general understanding of the chief functions of these endocrine organs.
Understand the endocrine contribution to embryo development.
Understand the endocrine role of the placenta during development.
Have a general understanding of different types of hormones and their signaling actions.

Hormones

Steroid hormone receptor signaling^[3]

Hormone Types

Steroid biosynthesis pathway

Amino acid derivatives - noradrenaline (norepinepherine), adrenalin (epinepherine) , thyroid hormone
Proteins, peptides - thyroid stimulating hormone, leutenising hormone, follicle stimulating hormone
Steroids - androgens, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids

Hormone Actions

Autocrine - acts on self (extracellular fluid)
Paracrine - acts locally (extracellular fluid)
Endocrine - acts by secretion into blood stream (endocrine organs are richly vascularized)

Hormone Receptors

Hormones are recognised by either cell surface receptors (modified amino acids, peptides, proteins) or cytoplasmic/nuclear receptors (steroids).

Interested in endocrine and hormone history? Listen to ABC Radio Ockham's Razor 2005-07-31 Centenary of the word "hormone" (File:Audio - centenary of hormone.mp3), by Sydney medical scientist (from SOMS) and writer Dr John Carmody commemorates the centenary of the entry of the word 'hormone' into the English language.

Links: Hormones

Endocrine Origins

Derived from epithelia - covering embryo, lining gastrointestinal tract, lining coelomic cavity
Also mesenchymal contribution

Development Overview

See specific endocrine organ development.

Pineal Gland

Adult pineal body

Pineal gland position

part of epithalmus - neurons, glia and pinealocytes
pinealocytes secrete melatonin - cyclic nature of activity, melatonin lowest during daylight
- inhibit hypothalamic secretion of GnRH until puberty, pineal gland then rapidly regresses.
other activities - possibly gamete maturation, antioxidant effect, protect neurons?

Pineal Development

Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon then diencephalon
caudal roof, median diverticulum, epiphysis
Initially a hollow diverticulum, cell proliferation to solid, pinealocytes (neuroglia), cone-shaped gland innervated by epithalmus

Links: Endocrine - Pineal Development

Hypothalamus

Hormones - Thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH), Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH), Arginine vasopressin (AVP), Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH), Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH), Somatostatin, Prolactin relasing factor (PRF), Dopamine

Hypothalamus Development

Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon then diencephalon
ventro-lateral wall intermediate zone proliferation
Mamillary bodies - form pea-sized swellings ventral wall of hypothalamus

Links: Endocrine - Hypothalamus Development

Pituitary

Adult pituitary

Anterior pituitary hormones - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Somatotrophin/growth hormone (GH), Prolactin (PRL), Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Posterior pituitary hormones - Oxytocin, Arginine vasopressin

Pituitary Development

Pituitary rabbit development

Blue - neural tube ectoderm

Red - surface ectoderm

Dual ectoderm origins
- Ectoderm - ectoderm roof of stomodeum, Rathke's pouch, adenohypophysis
- Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon then diencephalon, neurohypophysis

Adenohypophysis

Anterior wall proliferates - pars distalis
Posterior wall little growth – pars intermedia
Rostral growth around infundibular stem – pars tuberalis

Neurohypophysis

Infundibulum – median eminence, infundibulum, pars nervosa

Pituitary Timeline

Week 4 - hypophysial pouch, Rathke’s pouch, diverticulum from roof
Week 5 - elongation, contacts infundibulum, diverticulum of diencephalon
Week 6 - connecting stalk between pouch and oral cavity degenerates
Week 10 - growth hormone and ACTH detectable
Week 16 - adenohypophysis fully differentiated
Week 20 to 24 - growth hormone levels peak, then decline

Links: Endocrine - Pituitary Development | Embryo Images - Pituitary

Thyroid

Functions from wk10, required for neural development, stimulates metabolism (protein, carbohydrate, lipid), reduced/absence = cretinism (see abnormalities)

Hormones - (amino acid derivatives) Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3)

Thyroid Development

Stage 13 and Stage 22 thyroid development

foramen caecum

thyroid median endodermal thickening in the floor of pharynx, outpouch – thyroid diverticulum
tongue grows, cells descend in neck
thyroglossal duct - proximal end at the foramen cecum of tongue thyroglossal duct
thyroid diverticulum - hollow then solid, right and left lobes, central isthmus

Thyroid Timeline

24 days - thyroid median endodermal thickening in the floor of pharynx, outpouch – thyroid diverticulum
Week 11 - colloid appearance in thyroid follicles, iodine and thyroid hormone (TH) synthesis

growth factors (insulin-like, epidermal) stimulates follicular growth

Fetal Thyroid Hormone

Initial secreted biologically inactivated by modification, late fetal secretion develops brown fat
Iodine deficiency- during this period, leads to neurological defects (cretinism)
Birth - TSH levels increase, thyroxine (T3) and T4 levels increase to 24 h, then 5-7 days postnatal decline to normal levels

Links: Endocrine - Thyroid Development

Parathyroid

Parathyroid adult

Parathyroid Hormone - Increase calcium ions [Ca2+], stimulates osteoclasts, increase Ca GIT absorption (opposite effect to calcitonin)
Adult Calcium and Phosphate - Daily turnover in human with dietary intake of 1000 mg/day
secreted by chief cells

Principal cells cords of cells

Parathyroid Development

Pharyngeal pouches

Endoderm - third and fourth pharyngeal pouches, could also have ectoderm and neural crest
- 3rd Pharyngeal Pouch - inferior parathyroid, initially descends with thymus
- 4th Pharyngeal Pouch - superior parathyroid
Week 6 - diverticulum elongate, hollow then solid, dorsal cell proliferation
Fetal parathyroids - respond to calcium levels, fetal calcium levels higher than maternal

Links: Endocrine - Parathyroid Development

Thymus

Thymus - bone-marrow lymphocyte precursors become thymocytes, and subsequently mature into T lymphocytes (T cells)
Thymus hormones - thymosins stimulate the development and differentiation of T lymphocytes

Thymus Development

Endoderm - third pharyngeal pouch
Week 6 - diverticulum elongates, hollow then solid, ventral cell proliferation
Thymic primordia - surrounded by neural crest mesenchyme, epithelia/mesenchyme interaction
- Note in contrast to this historic image (shown here), current research has shown that the human thymic epithelium derives solely from the third pharyngeal pouch (as in the mouse). ^[4]

Links: Endocrine - Thymus Development

Pancreas

Pancreas adult

pancreas structure

Functions - exocrine (amylase, alpha-fetoprotein), 99% by volume; endocrine (pancreatic islets) 1% by volume
Exocrine function - begins after birth
Endocrine function - from 10 to 15 weeks onward hormone release
- exact roles of hormones in regulating fetal growth?

Pancreas Development

Pancreatic buds and duct developing

Stage22 pancreas

Pancreatic buds - duodenal level endoderm, splanchnic mesoderm forms dorsal and ventral mesentery, dorsal bud (larger, first), ventral bud (smaller, later)
Pancreas Endoderm - pancreas may be opposite of liver
- Heart cells promote/notochord prevents liver formation
- Notochord may promote pancreas formation
- Heart may block pancreas formation

Duodenum growth/rotation - brings ventral and dorsal buds together, fusion of buds
Pancreatic duct - ventral bud duct and distal part of dorsal bud, exocrine function
Islet cells - cords of endodermal cells form ducts, from which cells bud off to form islets

Pancreatic Islets

Islets of Langerhans - 4 endocrine cell types
Alpha - glucagon, mobilizes lipid
Beta - insulin, increase glucose uptake
- Beta cells, stimulate fetal growth, continue to proliferate to postnatal, in infancy most abundant
Delta - somatostatin, inhibits glucagon, insulin secretion
F-cells - pancreatic polypeptide

Pancreas Timeline

Week 7 to 20 - pancreatic hormones secretion increases, small amount maternal insulin
Week 10 - glucagon (alpha) differentiate first, somatostatin (delta), insulin (beta) cells differentiate, insulin secretion begins
Week 15 - glucagon detectable in fetal plasma

Links: Endocrine - Pancreas Development | Gastrointestinal Tract - Pancreas Development

Adrenal

Richly vascularized - arterioles passing through cortex, capillaries from cortex to medulla, portal-like circulation
Fetal Cortex - produces a steroid precursor (DEA), converted by placenta into estrogen
Adult Medulla - produces adrenalin (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Fetal adrenal hormones - influence lung maturation

Adrenal cortical hormones - (steroids) Cortisol, Aldosterone, Dehydroepiandrosterone

zona glomerulosa - regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system controlled by the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney.
zona fasciculata - regulated by hypothalamo-pituitary axis with the release of CRH and ACTH respectively.

Adrenal medullary hormones - (amino acid derivatives) Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

Adrenal Development

Week 10 adrenal gland

Fetal Adrenals - fetal cortex later replaced by adult cortex
Week 6 - fetal cortex, from mesothelium adjacent to dorsal mesentery; Medulla, neural crest cells from adjacent sympathetic ganglia
Adult cortex - mesothelium mesenchyme encloses fetal cortex

Adrenal Cortex

Late Fetal Period - differentiates to form cortical zones
Birth - zona glomerulosa, zona fasiculata present
Year 3 - zona reticularis present

Endocrinology - Adrenal Cortex Development

Adrenal Medulla

neural crest origin, migrate adjacent to coelomic cavity, initially uncapsulated and not surrounded by fetal cortex, cells have neuron-like morphology
2 cell types - secrete epinepherine (adrenaline) 80%; secrete norepinepherine (noradrenaline* 20%

Media:Adrenal_medulla.mov

Links: Endocrine - Adrenal Development

Gonad

Female HPG axis

HPG Axis - Endocrinology - Simplified diagram of the actions of gonadotrophins

Gonad Development

mesoderm - mesothelium and underlying mesenchyme, primordial germ cells
Gonadal ridge - mesothelium thickening, medial mesonephros
Primordial Germ cells - yolk sac, to mesentery of hindgut, to genital ridge of developing kidney

Differentiation

testis-determining factor (TDF) from Y chromosome: presence (testes), absence (ovaries)

Testis

8 Weeks, mesenchyme, interstitial cells (of Leydig) secrete testosterone, androstenedione
8 to 12 Weeks - hCG stimulates testosterone production
Sustentacular cells - produce anti-mullerian hormone to puberty

Ovary

X chromosome genes regulate ovary development

Corpus Luteum

Corpus luteum histology

A maternal endocrine organ that develops within the ovary in all mammalian species from the ovulating follicle^[5]. The key function of this endocrine organ is to maintain pregnancy in response to endocrine signals from the implanting conceptus (chorionic ganadotrophin). Corpus luteum steroidogenesis then alters the normal female reproductive cycle, maintains the endometrial lining of the uterus, and acts on the maternal endocrine system. The corpus luteum, depending upon the species, produces a range of androgens, estrogens and progesterone.

Historic Papers: 1969 corpus luteum ultrastructure 1 | 1969 corpus luteum ultrastructure 2

Links: Endocrine - Gonad Development | Menstrual Cycle | Estrous Cycle

Placenta

Trophoblast hCG function

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) - like leutenizing hormone, supports corpus luteum in ovary, pregnant state rather than menstrual, maternal urine in some pregnancy testing

Human chorionic somatommotropin (hCS) - or placental lactogen stimulate (maternal) mammary development
Human chorionic thyrotropin (hCT)
Human chorionic corticotropin (hCACTH)
progesterone and estrogens - support maternal endometrium
Relaxin

Placenta - Maternal (decidua) and Fetal (trophoblastic cells, extraembryonic mesoderm) components
Endocrine function - maternal and fetal precursors, synthesis and secretion
- Protein Hormones - chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) or placental lactogen (hPL), chorionic thyrotropin (hCT), chorionic corticotropin (hCACTH)
  - hCG - up to 20 weeks, fetal adrenal cortex growth and maintenance
  - hCS – rise through pregnancy, stimulates maternal metabolic processes, breast growth
- Steroid Hormones - progesterone (maintains pregnancy), estrogens (fetal adrenal/placenta)

Links: Endocrine - Placenta Development

Other Endocrine

Endocrine Heart

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) - Increase Filtration rate / decrease Na+ reabsorption
Endothelins - ET-1, ET-2, ET-3, Vasoconstriction / Increase NO
Nitric oxide (NO) - Vasodilatation

Endocrine Kidney

Renin - Increase Angiotensin-aldosterone system
Prostaglandins - decrease Na+ reabsorption
Erythropoietin - Increase Erythrocyte (rbc) production
1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D - calcium homeostasis
Prekallikreins - Increase Kinin production

GIT Endocrine

Enteric control of digestive function

Gastrin - Secreted from stomach (G cells), role in control of gastric acid secretion
Cholecystokinin - small intestine hormone, stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile
Secretin - small intestine hormone (epithelial cells), stimulates secretion of bicarbonate-rich fluids from pancreas and liver

Adipose Tissue

Leptin - polypeptide hormone produced in adipose and many other tissues with also many different roles
Adiponectin - regulation of energy homeostasis and glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as acting as an anti-inflammatory on the cellular vascular wall
Resistin - (for resistance to insulin, RETN) a 108 amino acid polypeptide and the related resistin-like protein-beta (Resistin-like molecule-beta, RELMbeta) stimulate endogenous glucose production

Links: Endocrine - Other Tissues

Endocrine Functional Changes

Puberty - Increased activity
Menopause - Decreased activity
Disease - (diabetes, thyroid, kidney) suggested trends that genetics, health, nutrition, lifestyle may influence time that these events occur
Pharmaceutical impact - birth control, steroids, Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)

References

↑ <pubmed>20377917</pubmed>
↑ <pubmed>19837867</pubmed> | Endocr Rev.
↑ <pubmed>17464358</pubmed>| PMC1853070 | Nucl Recept Signal.
↑ <pubmed>23571219</pubmed>
↑ <pubmed>17464358</pubmed>

Journals

Endocrine Development This series is devoted to specific areas of fetal, neonatal, pediatric and adolescent endocrinology. It addresses a wide range of relevant issues in the context of a well defined subject and covers new areas of clinical and basic research.

Textbooks

Endocrinology - An Integrated Approach Stephen Nussey and Saffron Whitehead, St. George's Hospital Medical School, London, UK Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2001.

Endotext De Groot LJ, Beck-Peccoz P, Chrousos G, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-. Bookshelf Link