Endocrine - Pituitary Development: Difference between revisions

From Embryology
mNo edit summary
mNo edit summary
(28 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
[[File:Historic-pituitary.jpg|thumb|Adult pituitary]]
[[File:Historic-pituitary.jpg|thumb|Adult pituitary]]
 
[[File:Martin Rathke.jpg|thumb|150px|alt=Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 – 1860)|Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 – 1860)]]
Historically, this endocrine gland was called the "pituitary" as it was originally thought to produce mucous that discharged through the nose. We now know that this is not the function of the pituitary, or '''hypophysis''' which is an endocrine gland links the brain to peripheral endocrine organs and systems of the body through several specific hormones. The developmental origin of the hypophysis is also unique, with epithelial origins from neural ectoderm (posterior) and from surface ectoderm (anterior).  
[[File:Pituitary histology 011.jpg|thumb|150px|Adult histology]]
Historically, this endocrine gland was called the "pituitary" as it was originally thought to produce mucous that discharged through the nose. We now know that this is not the function of the pituitary, or '''hypophysis''' is an endocrine gland links the brain to peripheral endocrine organs and systems of the body through several specific hormones. The developmental origin of the hypophysis is also unique, with dual epithelial origins from neural ectoderm (posterior) and from surface ectoderm (anterior).  




Line 12: Line 13:




[[File:Turkish saddle-17th century.jpg|thumb|Turkish saddle (17th century)]]
[[File:Turkish saddle-17th century.jpg|thumb|150px|Turkish saddle (17th century)]]


The pituitary is located within the pituitary fossa of the sphenoid bone, anterior to the lamina terminalis and superior to the pharynx. The shape of the bone surrounding the pituitary led to the naming '''sella turcica''' (Latin ''sella'' = saddle, ''turcica'' = Turkish), as it resembled a saddle shape.
The pituitary is located within the pituitary fossa of the sphenoid bone, anterior to the lamina terminalis and superior to the pharynx. The shape of the bone surrounding the pituitary led to the naming '''sella turcica''' (Latin ''sella'' = saddle, ''turcica'' = Turkish), as it resembled a saddle shape.
Line 26: Line 27:
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF"  
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF"  
|
|
* '''Direct and indirect roles of Fgf3 and Fgf10 in innervation and vascularisation of the vertebrate hypothalamic neurohypophysis.'''<ref name=PMID23404108><pubmed>23404108</pubmed></ref> "The neurohypophysis is a crucial component of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis, serving as the site of release of hypothalamic neurohormones into a plexus of hypophyseal capillaries. The growth of hypothalamic axons and capillaries to the forming neurohypophysis in embryogenesis is therefore crucial to future adult homeostasis. Using ex vivo analyses in chick and in vivo analyses in mutant and transgenic zebrafish, we show that Fgf10 and Fgf3 secreted from the forming neurohypophysis exert direct guidance effects on hypothalamic neurosecretory axons. Simultaneously, they promote hypophyseal vascularisation, exerting early direct effects on endothelial cells that are subsequently complemented by indirect effects."
* '''Canonical WNT Signaling Regulates the Pituitary Organizer and Pituitary Gland Formation'''{{#pmid:28938441|PMID28938441}} "The pituitary organizer is a domain within the ventral diencephalon that expresses Bmp4, Fgf8, and Fgf10, which induce the formation of the pituitary precursor, Rathke's pouch, from the oral ectoderm. The WNT signaling pathway regulates this pituitary organizer such that loss of Wnt5a leads to an expansion of the pituitary organizer and an enlargement of Rathke's pouch. WNT signaling is classified into canonical signaling, which is mediated by β-CATENIN, and noncanonical signaling, which operates independently of β-CATENIN. ...This result suggests that canonical WNT signaling promotes pituitary organizer function, instead of inhibiting it."
* '''Genetic Regulation of Pituitary Gland Development in Human and Mouse'''<ref><pubmed>19837867</pubmed> | [http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/30/7/790 Endocr Rev.]</ref> recent review article looking at molecular mechanisms of development.
 
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! More recent papers
! More recent papers &nbsp;
|-
|-
| [[File:Mark_Hill.jpg|90px|left]] {{Most_Recent_Refs}}
| [[File:Mark_Hill.jpg|90px|left]] {{Most_Recent_Refs}}


Search term: ''Pituitary Embryology''
 
Search term: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Pituitary+Embryologyy ''Pituitary Embryology'']


<pubmed limit=5>Pituitary Embryology</pubmed>
<pubmed limit=5>Pituitary Embryology</pubmed>
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! Older papers &nbsp;
|-
|
* '''β-catenin is required in the neural crest and mesencephalon for pituitary gland organogenesis'''{{#pmid:27184910|PMID27184910}} "The pituitary gland is a highly vascularized tissue that requires coordinated interactions between the neural ectoderm, oral ectoderm, and head mesenchyme during development for proper physiological function. ...mesenchyme on the rostral side of Rathke’s pouch is neural crest in origin. This rostral mesenchyme contributes to the vasculature of the pituitary gland."
* '''Direct and indirect roles of Fgf3 and Fgf10 in innervation and vascularisation of the vertebrate hypothalamic neurohypophysis.'''{{#pmid:23404108|PMID23404108}} "The neurohypophysis is a crucial component of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis, serving as the site of release of hypothalamic neurohormones into a plexus of hypophyseal capillaries. The growth of hypothalamic axons and capillaries to the forming neurohypophysis in embryogenesis is therefore crucial to future adult homeostasis. Using ex vivo analyses in chick and in vivo analyses in mutant and transgenic zebrafish, we show that Fgf10 and Fgf3 secreted from the forming neurohypophysis exert direct guidance effects on hypothalamic neurosecretory axons. Simultaneously, they promote hypophyseal vascularisation, exerting early direct effects on endothelial cells that are subsequently complemented by indirect effects."
* '''Genetic Regulation of Pituitary Gland Development in Human and Mouse'''{{#pmid:19837867|PMID19837867}} recent review article looking at molecular mechanisms of development.
|}
[[File:Embryonic_and_fetal_pituitary.jpg]]
[[File:Embryonic_and_fetal_pituitary.jpg]]


Line 45: Line 57:
* Dual ectoderm origins
* Dual ectoderm origins
** Ectoderm - ectoderm roof of stomodeum, Rathke's pouch, adenohypophysis
** Ectoderm - ectoderm roof of stomodeum, Rathke's pouch, adenohypophysis
** Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon then diencephalon, neurohypophysis
** Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon, neurohypophysis


'''Adenohypophysis'''
'''Adenohypophysis'''
Line 70: Line 82:


* Week 4 - hypophysial pouch, Rathke’s pouch, diverticulum from roof
* Week 4 - hypophysial pouch, Rathke’s pouch, diverticulum from roof
* Week 5 - elongation, contacts infundibulum, diverticulum of diencephalon
* Week 5 - elongation, contacts infundibulum, diverticulum of prosencephalon
* Week 6 - connecting stalk between pouch and oral cavity degenerates
* Week 6 - connecting stalk between pouch and oral cavity degenerates
* Week 10 - growth hormone and ACTH detectable
* Week 10 - growth hormone and ACTH detectable
Line 76: Line 88:
* Week 20 to 24 - growth hormone levels peak, then decline
* Week 20 to 24 - growth hormone levels peak, then decline


===Embryo Week 8 Carnegie Stage 22===
==Embryo Development==
 
===Carnegie Stage 22===


Developing Pituitary - Human embryo (Carnegie stage 22, week 8)
Developing Pituitary - Human embryo (Carnegie stage 22, week 8)
Line 88: Line 102:
:'''Links:''' [[:File:Stage_22_image_220.jpg|Image - Pituitary]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_221.jpg|Image - Pituitary Measured]] | [[Endocrine - Pituitary Development]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_156.jpg|Image - Low resolution Plane of Section]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_158.jpg|Image - Low resolution Pituitary]]
:'''Links:''' [[:File:Stage_22_image_220.jpg|Image - Pituitary]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_221.jpg|Image - Pituitary Measured]] | [[Endocrine - Pituitary Development]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_156.jpg|Image - Low resolution Plane of Section]] | [[:File:Stage_22_image_158.jpg|Image - Low resolution Pituitary]]


===Carnegie Stage 23===
{|
| The epithelium of the anterior lobe has become partly subdivided into lobule which project into the mesodermal component of the gland. The abundant vascular elements are well shown in figure 21.<ref name=Streeter1957>{{Ref-Streeter1957}}</ref>
* Fig. 19. [[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 4289|'''No. 4289''']]. 39-3-3. x200
* Fig. 20. [[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 4570|'''No. 4570''']]. 62-1-3 x400
* Fig. 21. [[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 4289|'''No. 4289''']]. 39-3-3 x800
| [[File:Streeter1957 plate02.jpg|300px]]
|}
===Fetal Pituitary===
===Fetal Pituitary===


Line 104: Line 127:
|-
|-
| Pars anterior and pars intermedia
| Pars anterior and pars intermedia
| From carotid: a bilateral supply, usually one on each side,sometimes more than one
| From carotid: a bilateral supply, usually one on each side, sometimes more than one
| Systemic veins to cavernous sinus following the course of the bilateral arteries
| Systemic veins to cavernous sinus following the course of the bilateral arteries
| Contribute blood to portal vessels
| Contribute blood to portal vessels
Line 118: Line 141:
| Contributes blood to the portal vessels by fine channels opening into them below their heavy glial sleeves
| Contributes blood to the portal vessels by fine channels opening into them below their heavy glial sleeves
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF"  
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF"  
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
|}
Line 124: Line 150:
pars distalis - vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels  
pars distalis - vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels  


A study in rats has identified the role of a known regulator of blood vessel development (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF) in the development of the pituitary portal vascular system.<ref><pubmed>16411082</pubmed></ref> "The primary capillaries extended along the developing pars tuberalis, whereas the portal vessels penetrated into the pars distalis at E15.5 (rat) and subsequently expanded into the lobe to connect with the secondary capillary plexus, emerging in the pars distalis. ....study suggests that VEGF-A (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A) is involved in the development of the primary capillaries and in the vascularization of the pars distalis, but not in the portal vessels since the formation of portal vessels begins at E13.5 (rat), before the appearance of VEGF-A in the rostral region of the pars distalis."  
A study in rats has identified the role of a known regulator of blood vessel development (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF) in the development of the pituitary portal vascular system.{{#pmid:16411082|PMID16411082}} "The primary capillaries extended along the developing pars tuberalis, whereas the portal vessels penetrated into the pars distalis at E15.5 (rat) and subsequently expanded into the lobe to connect with the secondary capillary plexus, emerging in the pars distalis. ....study suggests that VEGF-A (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A) is involved in the development of the primary capillaries and in the vascularization of the pars distalis, but not in the portal vessels since the formation of portal vessels begins at E13.5 (rat), before the appearance of VEGF-A in the rostral region of the pars distalis."  


The pars distalis is vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels that arise from the capillary beds in the median eminence of the hypothalamus (Murakami et al. 1987), and this hypophyseal portal system provides an important link for carrying hormonal information from the central nervous system to the pituitary. The capillaries of the pituitary gland are characterized by richly fenestrated endothelia.
The pars distalis is vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels that arise from the capillary beds in the median eminence of the hypothalamus (Murakami et al. 1987), and this hypophyseal portal system provides an important link for carrying hormonal information from the central nervous system to the pituitary. The capillaries of the pituitary gland are characterized by richly fenestrated endothelia.
Line 131: Line 157:


{{HPA_axis}}
{{HPA_axis}}
==Hormones==
===Follicle Stimulating Hormone===
(Follicle-stimulating hormone, {{FSH}}) gonadotropin) produced in the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) by basophil cell gonadotropes. This glycoprotein hormone postnatally during puberty acts on the gonads ({{testis}} and {{Ovary}}) to regulate fertility.  FSH at the cellular level binds the membrane follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSH receptor, FSHR), a [[:File:G-protein coupled receptors.jpg|G protein-coupled receptor]] (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptor.
* testis - sertoli cell
* ovary - granulosa cell
In females - FSH acts on the {{ovary}} to stimulate follicle development. Negative feedback by inhibin from the developing follicle decreases FSH secretion.
In males - FSH acts on the testis Sertoli cells to increase androgen-binding protein (ABP) that binds androgens and has a role in spermatogenesis.
FSH-defficiency in females results in infertile (block in folliculogenesis prior to antral follicle formation) and in males does not affect fertility (have small testes but are fertile).
FSH protein has a molecular weight 30 kDa and a 3-4 hour half-life in circulation. Gonadotrophins have been used clinically in humans for the treatment of infertility. Other glycoproetin hormones include luteinizing hormone ({{LH}}), [[T#thyroid stimulating hormone|thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)]], and [[C#chorionic gonadotropin|chorionic gonadotropin]].
===Luteinizing Hormone===
(lutropin, lutrophin, LH) produced in the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) by basophil cell gonadotropes. LH at the cellular level binds the membrane luteinizing hormone receptor (LH receptor, LHR), a [[:File:G-protein coupled receptors.jpg|G protein-coupled receptor]] (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptor.
* testis -  Leydig cell
* ovary - theca cell


==Postnatal==
==Postnatal==
[[File:Postnatal_thyrotropin_levels_graph.jpg|400px]]
[[File:Postnatal_thyrotropin_levels_graph.jpg|400px]]


Postnatal thyrotropin (TSH) levels<ref><pubmed>219036169</pubmed>| [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6823/8/15 BMC Endocr Disord.]</ref>
Postnatal thyrotropin (TSH) levels{{#pmid:219036169|PMID219036169}}


:'''Links:''' [[Neonatal_Development]] | [[Puberty Development]]
:'''Links:''' [[Neonatal_Development]] | [[Puberty Development]]
===Sexual Dimorphism===
===Sexual Dimorphism===


Quantitation of the human pituitary by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from childhood through puberty has identified volmetric differences between male and female pituitary sizes between 14 to 17 years of age.<ref><pubmed>17174342</pubmed>| [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1853319 PMC1853319]</ref>
Quantitation of the human pituitary by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from childhood through puberty has identified volmetric differences between male and female pituitary sizes between 14 to 17 years of age.{{#pmid:17174342|PMID17174342}}


* Females had larger pituitary glands than males in the age 14 to 17 year old groups.  
* Females had larger pituitary glands than males in the age 14 to 17 year old groups.  
Line 148: Line 194:
==Adult Histology==
==Adult Histology==
===Adenohypophysis===
===Adenohypophysis===
* '''Acidophils''' - cytoplasm that stains red or orange (polypeptide hormones: Somatotropes, produce growth hormone; Lactotropes produce prolactin)
* '''Acidophils''' - cytoplasm that stains red or orange
* '''Basophils''' - cytoplasm that stains a bluish colour (glycoprotein hormones: Thyrotropes produce thyroid stimulating hormone; Gonadotropes produce luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone; Corticotropes produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
** polypeptide hormones: Somatotropes, produce growth hormone; Lactotropes produce prolactin)
* '''Chromophobes''' - cytoplasm that stains very poorly (acidophils or basophils that are degranulated and depleted of hormone)
* '''Basophils''' - cytoplasm that stains a bluish colour
** glycoprotein hormones: Thyrotropes produce thyroid stimulating hormone; Gonadotropes produce luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone; Corticotropes produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
* '''Chromophobes''' - cytoplasm that stains very poorly
* acidophils or basophils that are degranulated and depleted of hormone


[[File:Pituitary histology 001.jpg]] [[File:Pituitary histology 002.jpg]]
[[File:Pituitary histology 001.jpg]] [[File:Pituitary histology 002.jpg]]
Line 165: Line 214:


== Molecular ==
== Molecular ==
* '''Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis.'''<ref><pubmed>11910101</pubmed></ref> "During mammalian pituitary gland development, distinct cell types emerge from a common primordium. Appearance of specific cell types occurs in response to opposing signaling gradients that emanate from distinct organizing centers. These signals induce expression of interacting transcriptional regulators, including DNA binding-dependent activators and DNA binding-independent transrepressors, in temporally and spatially overlapping patterns. Together they synergistically regulate precursor proliferation and induction of distinct cell types. Terminal cell type differentiation requires selective gene activation strategies and long-term active repression, mediated by cell type-specific and promoter-specific recruitment of coregulatory complexes. These mechanisms imply the potential for flexibility in the ultimate identity of differentiated cell types."  
* '''Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis.'''{{#pmid:11910101|PMID11910101}} "During mammalian pituitary gland development, distinct cell types emerge from a common primordium. Appearance of specific cell types occurs in response to opposing signaling gradients that emanate from distinct organizing centers. These signals induce expression of interacting transcriptional regulators, including DNA binding-dependent activators and DNA binding-independent transrepressors, in temporally and spatially overlapping patterns. Together they synergistically regulate precursor proliferation and induction of distinct cell types. Terminal cell type differentiation requires selective gene activation strategies and long-term active repression, mediated by cell type-specific and promoter-specific recruitment of coregulatory complexes. These mechanisms imply the potential for flexibility in the ultimate identity of differentiated cell types."  


* '''Pax6 is essential for establishing ventral-dorsal cell boundaries in pituitary gland development.'''<ref><pubmed>10588713</pubmed></ref> "The transcription factor Pax6 (paired homeodomain) has been shown to be expressed transiently in the dorsal portion of the developing pituitary before the ventral/dorsal appearance of specific cell types. Transient dorsal expression of Pax6 could establish the boundary between dorsal and ventral cell types, based on the inhibition of Shh ventral signals."
* '''Pax6 is essential for establishing ventral-dorsal cell boundaries in pituitary gland development.'''{{#pmid:10588713|PMID10588713}} "The transcription factor Pax6 (paired homeodomain) has been shown to be expressed transiently in the dorsal portion of the developing pituitary before the ventral/dorsal appearance of specific cell types. Transient dorsal expression of Pax6 could establish the boundary between dorsal and ventral cell types, based on the inhibition of Shh ventral signals."


=== Genes ===
=== Genes ===
Line 188: Line 237:


===Pituitary Duplication===
===Pituitary Duplication===
Occurring as either a complete or partial duplication, this is an extremely rare abnormality with poor neonatal survival due to associated abnormalities. <ref><pubmed>7708185</pubmed></ref> Recently a heterozygous deletion of chromosome 14, including the thyroid transcription factor-1 gene, has been identified with duplication of the pituitary stalk.<ref><pubmed>20685887</pubmed></ref>
Occurring as either a complete or partial duplication, this is an extremely rare abnormality with poor neonatal survival due to associated abnormalities.{{#pmid:7708185|PMID7708185}} Recently a heterozygous deletion of chromosome 14, including the thyroid transcription factor-1 gene, has been identified with duplication of the pituitary stalk.{{#pmid:20685887|PMID20685887}}


===Pituitary Adenoma Classification===
===Pituitary Adenoma Classification===
Line 232: Line 281:


===Reviews===
===Reviews===
<pubmed>25858531</pubmed>
{{#pmid:25858531}}
<pubmed>19837867</pubmed>
 
<pubmed>11036930</pubmed>
{{#pmid:19837867}}
<pubmed>10354584</pubmed>
 
<pubmed>10330482</pubmed>
{{#pmid:11036930}}
 
{{#pmid:10354584}}
 
{{#pmid:10330482}}


===Articles===  
===Articles===  
<pubmed>16411082</pubmed>
{{#pmid:16411082}}
<pubmed>10588713</pubmed>
 
<pubmed>11152636</pubmed>
{{#pmid:10588713}}
 
{{#pmid:11152636}}


===Search PubMed===
===Search PubMed===
Line 253: Line 308:
<gallery>
<gallery>
File:Mouse-pituitary Sox4 expression.jpg|Mouse - pituitary Sox4 expression
File:Mouse-pituitary Sox4 expression.jpg|Mouse - pituitary Sox4 expression
</gallery>
===Historic Images===
{{Historic Disclaimer}}
{{Ref-Herring1908b}}
<gallery>
File:Herring1908b fig06.jpg|Fig. 6 Pituitary human foetus (month 5)
File:Herring1908b fig07.jpg|Fig. 7 Pituitary human foetus (month 5)
</gallery>
{{Ref-Frazer1911}}
<gallery>
File:Frazer1911 fig01.jpg|Fig. 1 Sagittal section 12 mm embryo
File:Frazer1911 fig02.jpg|Fig. 2 Pharyngeal end of Rathke's pouch 6-10 weeks
File:Frazer1911 fig03.jpg|Fig. 3. mucous membrane nasal opening 4 months
</gallery>
<gallery>
Keith1902 fig117.jpg
|Keith 1902 Fig 117
Kollmann355.jpg|Kollmann 1907 Fig 355
Kollmann356.jpg|Kollmann 1907 Fig 356
Keith1921 fig099.jpg
|Keith 1921 Fig 099
Keith1921 fig101.jpg
|Keith 1921 Fig 101
Keith1921 fig102.jpg
|Keith 1921 Fig 102
Keith1921 fig103.jpg|Keith 1921 Fig 103
File:Gray1181.jpg|Gray Fig. 1181  Pituitary median sagittal hypophysis (adult monkey)
File:Rugh 116.jpg|Rugh 1951 Fig. 116 Frog Pituitary Gland
</gallery>
{{Ref-Streeter1957}}
<gallery>
File:Streeter1957 fig08.jpg|Stage 19-23
File:Streeter1957 fig08-19.jpg|[[Carnegie stage 19|stage 19]] ([[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 1390|Embryo 1390]])
File:Streeter1957 fig08-20.jpg|[[Carnegie stage 20|stage 20]] ([[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 6202|Embryo 6202]])
File:Streeter1957 fig08-21.jpg|[[Carnegie stage 21|stage 21]] ([[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 1358F|Embryo 1358F]])
File:Streeter1957 fig08-22.jpg|[[Carnegie stage 22|stage 22]] ([[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 1458|Embryo 1458]])
File:Streeter1957 fig08-23.jpg|[[Carnegie stage 23|stage 23]] ([[:Category:Carnegie Embryo 5422|Embryo 5422]])
</gallery>
</gallery>


==Terms==
==Terms==
* '''adenohypophyseal placode''' - Specialised cranial surface [[E#ectoderm|ectoderm]] [[P#placode|placode]] region that will form the endocrine anterior pituitary ([[A#adenohypophysis|adenohypophysis]]).  
* '''adenohypophyseal placode''' - Specialised cranial surface [[E#ectoderm|ectoderm]] [[P#placode|placode]] region that will form the endocrine anterior pituitary ([[A#adenohypophysis|adenohypophysis]]).  
* '''adenohypophysis''' - (anterior pituitary, pars distalis) The anterior part of the pituitary, which develops in the early [[E#embryo|embryo]] from the surface [[E#ectoderm|ectoderm]] adenohypophyseal placode. This placode will fold inward on the roof of the pharynx forming a transient structure [[R#Rathke's pouch|Rathke's pouch]], that looses its connection with the surface.  
* '''adenohypophysis''' - (anterior pituitary, pars anterior) The anterior part of the pituitary, which develops in the early [[E#embryo|embryo]] from the surface [[E#ectoderm|ectoderm]] adenohypophyseal placode. This placode will fold inward on the roof of the pharynx forming a transient structure [[R#Rathke's pouch|Rathke's pouch]], that looses its connection with the surface.
* '''anterior pituitary''' - (adenohypophysis, pars anterior, pars distalis)
* '''neurohypophysis''' - (posterior pituitary)
* '''pars tuberalis''' - (pars tuberalis of the hypophysis) anatomically is the region of anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) extending along the anterior and lateral surfaces of the hypophyseal stalk. Tuberalis principal cells are low columnar, with cytoplasm containing lipid droplets, glycogen granules, and some colloid droplets.
* '''posterior pituitary''' - (neurohypophysis)
* '''Rathke's pouch''' - An ectodermal fold in roof of pharynx forming anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and pars intermedia. Named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 -1860). (More? [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2955.html Martin Heinrich Rathke])
* '''Rathke's pouch''' - An ectodermal fold in roof of pharynx forming anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and pars intermedia. Named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 -1860). (More? [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2955.html Martin Heinrich Rathke])


== External Links ==
== External Links ==
Line 269: Line 368:


{{Glossary}}
{{Glossary}}





Revision as of 13:32, 4 October 2018

Embryology - 28 Mar 2024    Facebook link Pinterest link Twitter link  Expand to Translate  
Google Translate - select your language from the list shown below (this will open a new external page)

العربية | català | 中文 | 中國傳統的 | français | Deutsche | עִברִית | हिंदी | bahasa Indonesia | italiano | 日本語 | 한국어 | မြန်မာ | Pilipino | Polskie | português | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਦੇ | Română | русский | Español | Swahili | Svensk | ไทย | Türkçe | اردو | ייִדיש | Tiếng Việt    These external translations are automated and may not be accurate. (More? About Translations)

Introduction

Adult pituitary
Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 – 1860)
Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 – 1860)
Adult histology

Historically, this endocrine gland was called the "pituitary" as it was originally thought to produce mucous that discharged through the nose. We now know that this is not the function of the pituitary, or hypophysis is an endocrine gland links the brain to peripheral endocrine organs and systems of the body through several specific hormones. The developmental origin of the hypophysis is also unique, with dual epithelial origins from neural ectoderm (posterior) and from surface ectoderm (anterior).


During development, the boundary epitheilal ectoderm in the roof of the pharynx forms a pocket (Rathke's pouch) that comes into contact with the ectoderm of developing brain. Rathke's pouch is named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 -1860).


Anatomically, the pituitary has 2 main parts posterior, or neurohypophysis and anterior, or adenohypophysis (the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis). Between the two a specialized vascular (portal) system allows communication from the brain to peripheral endocrine organs and other systems.


Turkish saddle (17th century)

The pituitary is located within the pituitary fossa of the sphenoid bone, anterior to the lamina terminalis and superior to the pharynx. The shape of the bone surrounding the pituitary led to the naming sella turcica (Latin sella = saddle, turcica = Turkish), as it resembled a saddle shape.


Maternal pituitary also increases in size during pregnancy, due mainly to hyperplasia of the prolactin secreting cells (lactotrophs), in preparation for lactation after birth.


Endocrine Links: Introduction | BGD Lecture | Science Lecture | Lecture Movie | pineal | hypothalamus‎ | pituitary | thyroid | parathyroid | thymus | pancreas | adrenal | endocrine gonad‎ | endocrine placenta | other tissues | Stage 22 | endocrine abnormalities | Hormones | Category:Endocrine
Historic Embryology - Endocrine  
1903 Islets of Langerhans | 1903 Pig Adrenal | 1904 interstitial Cells | 1908 Pancreas Different Species | 1908 Pituitary | 1908 Pituitary histology | 1911 Rathke's pouch | 1912 Suprarenal Bodies | 1914 Suprarenal Organs | 1915 Pharynx | 1916 Thyroid | 1918 Rabbit Hypophysis | 1920 Adrenal | 1935 Mammalian Hypophysis | 1926 Human Hypophysis | 1927 Adrenal | 1927 Hypophyseal fossa | 1930 Adrenal | 1932 Pineal Gland and Cysts | 1935 Hypophysis | 1935 Pineal | 1937 Pineal | 1935 Parathyroid | 1940 Adrenal | 1941 Thyroid | 1950 Thyroid Parathyroid Thymus | 1957 Adrenal

| Lecture - Head Development | Placodes

Some Recent Findings

  • Canonical WNT Signaling Regulates the Pituitary Organizer and Pituitary Gland Formation[1] "The pituitary organizer is a domain within the ventral diencephalon that expresses Bmp4, Fgf8, and Fgf10, which induce the formation of the pituitary precursor, Rathke's pouch, from the oral ectoderm. The WNT signaling pathway regulates this pituitary organizer such that loss of Wnt5a leads to an expansion of the pituitary organizer and an enlargement of Rathke's pouch. WNT signaling is classified into canonical signaling, which is mediated by β-CATENIN, and noncanonical signaling, which operates independently of β-CATENIN. ...This result suggests that canonical WNT signaling promotes pituitary organizer function, instead of inhibiting it."
More recent papers  
Mark Hill.jpg
PubMed logo.gif

This table allows an automated computer search of the external PubMed database using the listed "Search term" text link.

  • This search now requires a manual link as the original PubMed extension has been disabled.
  • The displayed list of references do not reflect any editorial selection of material based on content or relevance.
  • References also appear on this list based upon the date of the actual page viewing.


References listed on the rest of the content page and the associated discussion page (listed under the publication year sub-headings) do include some editorial selection based upon both relevance and availability.

More? References | Discussion Page | Journal Searches | 2019 References | 2020 References


Search term: Pituitary Embryology

<pubmed limit=5>Pituitary Embryology</pubmed>

Older papers  
  • β-catenin is required in the neural crest and mesencephalon for pituitary gland organogenesis[2] "The pituitary gland is a highly vascularized tissue that requires coordinated interactions between the neural ectoderm, oral ectoderm, and head mesenchyme during development for proper physiological function. ...mesenchyme on the rostral side of Rathke’s pouch is neural crest in origin. This rostral mesenchyme contributes to the vasculature of the pituitary gland."
  • Direct and indirect roles of Fgf3 and Fgf10 in innervation and vascularisation of the vertebrate hypothalamic neurohypophysis.[3] "The neurohypophysis is a crucial component of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis, serving as the site of release of hypothalamic neurohormones into a plexus of hypophyseal capillaries. The growth of hypothalamic axons and capillaries to the forming neurohypophysis in embryogenesis is therefore crucial to future adult homeostasis. Using ex vivo analyses in chick and in vivo analyses in mutant and transgenic zebrafish, we show that Fgf10 and Fgf3 secreted from the forming neurohypophysis exert direct guidance effects on hypothalamic neurosecretory axons. Simultaneously, they promote hypophyseal vascularisation, exerting early direct effects on endothelial cells that are subsequently complemented by indirect effects."
  • Genetic Regulation of Pituitary Gland Development in Human and Mouse[4] recent review article looking at molecular mechanisms of development.

Embryonic and fetal pituitary.jpg

Development Overview

  • Dual ectoderm origins
    • Ectoderm - ectoderm roof of stomodeum, Rathke's pouch, adenohypophysis
    • Neuroectoderm - prosenecephalon, neurohypophysis

Adenohypophysis

  • Anterior wall proliferates - pars distalis
  • Posterior wall little growth – pars intermedia
  • Rostral growth around infundibular stem – pars tuberalis

Neurohypophysis

  • Infundibulum – median eminence, infundibulum, pars nervosa

Pituitary development animation.gif


Red - surface ectoderm Blue - neural tube ectoderm

Pituitary Timeline

Embryonic and fetal pituitary.jpg
Human embryonic and fetal pituitary
  • Week 4 - hypophysial pouch, Rathke’s pouch, diverticulum from roof
  • Week 5 - elongation, contacts infundibulum, diverticulum of prosencephalon
  • Week 6 - connecting stalk between pouch and oral cavity degenerates
  • Week 10 - growth hormone and ACTH detectable
  • Week 16 - adenohypophysis fully differentiated
  • Week 20 to 24 - growth hormone levels peak, then decline

Embryo Development

Carnegie Stage 22

Developing Pituitary - Human embryo (Carnegie stage 22, week 8)

Stage 22 image 220.jpg Stage 22 image 221.jpg

Stage 22 image 204.jpg


Links: Image - Pituitary | Image - Pituitary Measured | Endocrine - Pituitary Development | Image - Low resolution Plane of Section | Image - Low resolution Pituitary

Carnegie Stage 23

The epithelium of the anterior lobe has become partly subdivided into lobule which project into the mesodermal component of the gland. The abundant vascular elements are well shown in figure 21.[5] Streeter1957 plate02.jpg

Fetal Pituitary

Fetal head section 03.jpg

Human Fetal Head (Week 12) - Pituitary

Pituitary Blood Vessel Development

Part of pituitary Arterial supply Systemic venous return Portal system return
Pars anterior and pars intermedia From carotid: a bilateral supply, usually one on each side, sometimes more than one Systemic veins to cavernous sinus following the course of the bilateral arteries Contribute blood to portal vessels
Pars tuberalis From circle of Willis by small branches around the outside of the stalk Small systemic veins corresponding to the arteries Contributes blood to the portal vessels
Pars posterior By branches from the bilateral supply from the carotids By small systemic venous branches following the course ofthe arterial twigs Contributes blood to the portal vessels by fine channels opening into them below their heavy glial sleeves
       


pars distalis - vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels

A study in rats has identified the role of a known regulator of blood vessel development (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF) in the development of the pituitary portal vascular system.[6] "The primary capillaries extended along the developing pars tuberalis, whereas the portal vessels penetrated into the pars distalis at E15.5 (rat) and subsequently expanded into the lobe to connect with the secondary capillary plexus, emerging in the pars distalis. ....study suggests that VEGF-A (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A) is involved in the development of the primary capillaries and in the vascularization of the pars distalis, but not in the portal vessels since the formation of portal vessels begins at E13.5 (rat), before the appearance of VEGF-A in the rostral region of the pars distalis."

The pars distalis is vascularized by hypophysial portal vessels that arise from the capillary beds in the median eminence of the hypothalamus (Murakami et al. 1987), and this hypophyseal portal system provides an important link for carrying hormonal information from the central nervous system to the pituitary. The capillaries of the pituitary gland are characterized by richly fenestrated endothelia.

Hypothalamus Endocrine Axes

Links: Image - HPA | Hypothalamus | Pituitary | Adrenal | Image - HPT Axis | Thyroid | Image - HPG female | Image - HPG male | Gonad

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a small region located within the brain that controls many bodily functions, including eating and drinking, sexual functions and behaviors, blood pressure and heart rate, body temperature maintenance, the sleep-wake cycle, and emotional states (e.g., fear, pain, anger, and pleasure). Hypothalamic hormones play pivotal roles in the regulation of many of those functions. Because the hypothalamus is part of the central nervous system, the hypothalamic hormones actually are produced by nerve cells (i.e., neurons).

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

The anterior pituitary produces several important hormones that either stimulate target glands (e.g., the adrenal glands, gonads, or thyroid gland) to produce target gland hormones or directly affect target organs. The pituitary hormones include adreno-corticotropic hormone (ACTH); gonadotropins; thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), also called thyrotropin; growth hormone (GH); and prolactin.

The first three of those hormones (ACTH, gonadotropins, and TSH) act on other glands.

  • ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroid hormones (primarily cortisol) as well as small amounts of female and male sex hormones.
  • Gonadotropins comprise two molecules, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These two hormones regulate the production of female and male sex hormones in the ovaries and testes as well as the production of the germ cells (oocyte and spermatozoa).
  • TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormone.

The remaining two pituitary hormones, GH and prolactin, directly affect their target organs.

Pituitary

Hormones

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

(Follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH) gonadotropin) produced in the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) by basophil cell gonadotropes. This glycoprotein hormone postnatally during puberty acts on the gonads (testis and ovary) to regulate fertility. FSH at the cellular level binds the membrane follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSH receptor, FSHR), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptor.

  • testis - sertoli cell
  • ovary - granulosa cell

In females - FSH acts on the ovary to stimulate follicle development. Negative feedback by inhibin from the developing follicle decreases FSH secretion.

In males - FSH acts on the testis Sertoli cells to increase androgen-binding protein (ABP) that binds androgens and has a role in spermatogenesis.

FSH-defficiency in females results in infertile (block in folliculogenesis prior to antral follicle formation) and in males does not affect fertility (have small testes but are fertile).

FSH protein has a molecular weight 30 kDa and a 3-4 hour half-life in circulation. Gonadotrophins have been used clinically in humans for the treatment of infertility. Other glycoproetin hormones include luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and chorionic gonadotropin.

Luteinizing Hormone

(lutropin, lutrophin, LH) produced in the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) by basophil cell gonadotropes. LH at the cellular level binds the membrane luteinizing hormone receptor (LH receptor, LHR), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptor.

  • testis - Leydig cell
  • ovary - theca cell

Postnatal

Postnatal thyrotropin levels graph.jpg

Postnatal thyrotropin (TSH) levelsPubmedParser error: The PubmedParser extension received invalid XML data. ()

Links: Neonatal_Development | Puberty Development

Sexual Dimorphism

Quantitation of the human pituitary by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from childhood through puberty has identified volmetric differences between male and female pituitary sizes between 14 to 17 years of age.[7]

  • Females had larger pituitary glands than males in the age 14 to 17 year old groups.
  • Young (19 years and under) and old (20 years and older) females demonstrated a correlation between pituitary volume and age.
  • Males did not show this relationship.

Adult Histology

Adenohypophysis

  • Acidophils - cytoplasm that stains red or orange
    • polypeptide hormones: Somatotropes, produce growth hormone; Lactotropes produce prolactin)
  • Basophils - cytoplasm that stains a bluish colour
    • glycoprotein hormones: Thyrotropes produce thyroid stimulating hormone; Gonadotropes produce luteinizing hormone or follicle-stimulating hormone; Corticotropes produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone)
  • Chromophobes - cytoplasm that stains very poorly
  • acidophils or basophils that are degranulated and depleted of hormone

Pituitary histology 001.jpg Pituitary histology 002.jpg

Neurohypophysis

  • Infundibular process - usually referred to as posterior pituitary (unmyelinated axons from hypothalamic neurosecretory neurons, supraoptic and paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei)
    • 2 other parts: median eminence and infundibular stalk

Pituitary histology 003.jpg Pituitary histology 004.jpg


Links: Pituitary - neurohypophysis (large histology image)

Molecular

  • Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis.[8] "During mammalian pituitary gland development, distinct cell types emerge from a common primordium. Appearance of specific cell types occurs in response to opposing signaling gradients that emanate from distinct organizing centers. These signals induce expression of interacting transcriptional regulators, including DNA binding-dependent activators and DNA binding-independent transrepressors, in temporally and spatially overlapping patterns. Together they synergistically regulate precursor proliferation and induction of distinct cell types. Terminal cell type differentiation requires selective gene activation strategies and long-term active repression, mediated by cell type-specific and promoter-specific recruitment of coregulatory complexes. These mechanisms imply the potential for flexibility in the ultimate identity of differentiated cell types."
  • Pax6 is essential for establishing ventral-dorsal cell boundaries in pituitary gland development.[9] "The transcription factor Pax6 (paired homeodomain) has been shown to be expressed transiently in the dorsal portion of the developing pituitary before the ventral/dorsal appearance of specific cell types. Transient dorsal expression of Pax6 could establish the boundary between dorsal and ventral cell types, based on the inhibition of Shh ventral signals."

Genes

Pit1 (pituitary-specific transcription factor) is a transcription factor important for pituitary development and muations in this gene can lead to abnormalities in pituitary development and hormone production.

  • PIT1 Pituitary-Specific Transcription Factor 1 - transcription factor responsible for pituitary development and hormone expression in mammals. OMIM 173110 | Gene Map Locus: 3p11 | is a pituitary-specific transcription factor responsible for pituitary development and hormone expression in mammals and is a member of the POU family of transcription factors that regulate mammalian development.
  • PitX1 Paired-Like Homeodomain Transcription Factor 1 - transcription factor expressed in pituitary primordium. Member of bicoid-related vertebrate homeobox genes. OMIM 602149 | Gene Map Locus: 5q31
  • PitX2 Paired-Like Homeodomain Transcription Factor 2 - transcription factor expressed in pituitary primordium and other anterior structures, including the eye Member of bicoid-related vertebrate homeobox genes. OMIM 601542 | Gene Map Locus: 4q25-q26

Abnormalities

Anatomical abnormalities asssociated with the Rathke's pouch include a craniopharyngeal canal, from the anterior part of the fossa hypophyseos of the sphenoid bone to the under surface of the skull. The stomodeal end may also be present at the junction of the septum of the nose with the palate.

Abnormal functional development of the pituitary can lead to a wide range of other organ diseases due to the effect of hormones released from the pituitary on many other endocrine and non-endocrine organs (For example: dwarfism, hypothyroidism). (More? NIH Genes and Disease Chapter 41 - Endocrine)

Pituitary Duplication

Occurring as either a complete or partial duplication, this is an extremely rare abnormality with poor neonatal survival due to associated abnormalities.[10] Recently a heterozygous deletion of chromosome 14, including the thyroid transcription factor-1 gene, has been identified with duplication of the pituitary stalk.[11]

Pituitary Adenoma Classification

There are several abnormalities associated with abnormal levels of the hormonal output of the pituitary due to the development of pituitary tumours (adenomas).

Growth hormone (GH) adenoma

Growth hormone (GH) adenomas, which are benign pituitary tumors lead to chronic high GH output levels, that may lead to acromegaly in adults and gigantism in children.

Acromegaly (Greek, acro = "extremities"; megaly = "enlargement") is a clinical term for a hormonal disorder that results from excess growth hormone (GH) in the body. The pituitary produces excessive amounts of growth hormone, usually due to benign, or noncancerous, pituitary tumours (adenomas). Childhood adenomas lead to gigantism rather than acromegaly, due to continued and excess growth in the still unfused growth plates in the long bones of the legs.

Links: NIH - acromegaly

Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) adenoma

Cushing's disease caused either by a pituitary adenoma produces excess adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin) or due to ectopic tumors secreting ACTH or corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). Classification can be applied using specific criteria (clinical presentation, biochemical data, histology of growth pattern, tinctorial characteristics, proliferative activity, immunohistology marker expression, ultrastructure and molecular biology). The current classification used is the World Health Organization classification of 2000 recently updated in 2004.

Links: NIH - cushings

Syndromic Hypopituitarism

Combined Pituitary Hormone Deficiency

TBX19 and ACTH Deficiency

References

  1. Osmundsen AM, Keisler JL, Taketo MM & Davis SW. (2017). Canonical WNT Signaling Regulates the Pituitary Organizer and Pituitary Gland Formation. Endocrinology , 158, 3339-3353. PMID: 28938441 DOI.
  2. Davis SW, Mortensen AH, Keisler JL, Zacharias AL, Gage PJ, Yamamura K & Camper SA. (2016). β-catenin is required in the neural crest and mesencephalon for pituitary gland organogenesis. BMC Dev. Biol. , 16, 16. PMID: 27184910 DOI.
  3. Liu F, Pogoda HM, Pearson CA, Ohyama K, Löhr H, Hammerschmidt M & Placzek M. (2013). Direct and indirect roles of Fgf3 and Fgf10 in innervation and vascularisation of the vertebrate hypothalamic neurohypophysis. Development , 140, 1111-22. PMID: 23404108 DOI.
  4. Kelberman D, Rizzoti K, Lovell-Badge R, Robinson IC & Dattani MT. (2009). Genetic regulation of pituitary gland development in human and mouse. Endocr. Rev. , 30, 790-829. PMID: 19837867 DOI.
  5. Streeter GL. Developmental Horizons In Human Embryos Description Or Age Groups XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, And XXIII, Being The Fifth Issue Of A Survey Of The Carnegie Collection. (1957) Carnegie Instn. Wash. Publ. 611, Contrib. Embryol., 36: 167-196.
  6. Nakakura T, Yoshida M, Dohra H, Suzuki M & Tanaka S. (2006). Gene expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-A in the pituitary during formation of the vascular system in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis of the rat. Cell Tissue Res. , 324, 87-95. PMID: 16411082 DOI.
  7. MacMaster FP, Keshavan M, Mirza Y, Carrey N, Upadhyaya AR, El-Sheikh R, Buhagiar CJ, Taormina SP, Boyd C, Lynch M, Rose M, Ivey J, Moore GJ & Rosenberg DR. (2007). Development and sexual dimorphism of the pituitary gland. Life Sci. , 80, 940-4. PMID: 17174342 DOI.
  8. Scully KM & Rosenfeld MG. (2002). Pituitary development: regulatory codes in mammalian organogenesis. Science , 295, 2231-5. PMID: 11910101 DOI.
  9. Kioussi C, O'Connell S, St-Onge L, Treier M, Gleiberman AS, Gruss P & Rosenfeld MG. (1999). Pax6 is essential for establishing ventral-dorsal cell boundaries in pituitary gland development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 96, 14378-82. PMID: 10588713
  10. Kollias SS, Ball WS & Prenger EC. (1995). Review of the embryologic development of the pituitary gland and report of a case of hypophyseal duplication detected by MRI. Neuroradiology , 37, 3-12. PMID: 7708185
  11. Accornero S, Danesino C, Bastianello S, D'Errico I, Guala A & Chiovato L. (2010). Duplication of the pituitary stalk in a patient with a heterozygous deletion of chromosome 14 harboring the thyroid transcription factor-1 gene. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. , 95, 3595-6. PMID: 20685887 DOI.

Online Textbooks

Endocrinology: An Integrated Approach Nussey, S.S. and Whitehead, S.A. Oxford, UK: BIOS Scientific Publishers, Ltd; 2001. table of Contents | The pituitary gland | Embryology of the pituitary gland | Blood supply of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis

NIH Genes & Disease Chapter 41 - Endocrine

Developmental Biology (6th ed) Gilbert, Scott F. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, Inc.; c2000.

Stages along the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis of salamanders

Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th Edn) Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter. New York: Garland Publishing; 2002. table 15-1. Some Hormone-induced Cell Responses Mediated by Cyclic AMP | Alternative processing pathways for the prohormone proopiomelanocortin

Clinical Methods (3rd Edn) Walker, H.K.; Hall, W.D.; Hurst, J.W.; editors Stoneham (MA). Tests of Pituitary or Target Gland Dysfunction | Pituitary Tumors

Health Services/Technology Assessment Text (HSTAT) Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US), 2003 Oct. Pituitary Gland search Results

Search NLM Online Textbooks- "pituitary development" : Endocrinology | Molecular Biology of the Cell | The Cell- A molecular Approach

Reviews

Musumeci G, Castorina S, Castrogiovanni P, Loreto C, Leonardi R, Aiello FC, Magro G & Imbesi R. (2015). A journey through the pituitary gland: Development, structure and function, with emphasis on embryo-foetal and later development. Acta Histochem. , 117, 355-66. PMID: 25858531 DOI.

Kelberman D, Rizzoti K, Lovell-Badge R, Robinson IC & Dattani MT. (2009). Genetic regulation of pituitary gland development in human and mouse. Endocr. Rev. , 30, 790-829. PMID: 19837867 DOI.

Rosenfeld MG, Briata P, Dasen J, Gleiberman AS, Kioussi C, Lin C, O'Connell SM, Ryan A, Szeto DP & Treier M. (2000). Multistep signaling and transcriptional requirements for pituitary organogenesis in vivo. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. , 55, 1-13; discussion 13-4. PMID: 11036930

Sheng HZ & Westphal H. (1999). Early steps in pituitary organogenesis. Trends Genet. , 15, 236-40. PMID: 10354584

Kioussi C, Carrière C & Rosenfeld MG. (1999). A model for the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis: transcribing the hypophysis. Mech. Dev. , 81, 23-35. PMID: 10330482

Articles

Nakakura T, Yoshida M, Dohra H, Suzuki M & Tanaka S. (2006). Gene expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-A in the pituitary during formation of the vascular system in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis of the rat. Cell Tissue Res. , 324, 87-95. PMID: 16411082 DOI.

Kioussi C, O'Connell S, St-Onge L, Treier M, Gleiberman AS, Gruss P & Rosenfeld MG. (1999). Pax6 is essential for establishing ventral-dorsal cell boundaries in pituitary gland development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 96, 14378-82. PMID: 10588713

Treier M, O'Connell S, Gleiberman A, Price J, Szeto DP, Burgess R, Chuang PT, McMahon AP & Rosenfeld MG. (2001). Hedgehog signaling is required for pituitary gland development. Development , 128, 377-86. PMID: 11152636

Search PubMed

Search April 2010

  • Endocrine Development - All (14277) Review (4620) Free Full Text (3140)

Search Pubmed: pituitary development

Additional Images

Historic Images

Historic Disclaimer - information about historic embryology pages 
Mark Hill.jpg
Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

Herring PT. The development of the mammalian pituitary and its morphological significance. (1908) Quar. Jour. Ex. Physiol. 1: 161-185.

Frazer JE. Pharyngeal end of Rathke's pouch. (1911) J Anat. 45: 190-196. PMID 17232879

Streeter GL. Developmental Horizons In Human Embryos Description Or Age Groups XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, And XXIII, Being The Fifth Issue Of A Survey Of The Carnegie Collection. (1957) Carnegie Instn. Wash. Publ. 611, Contrib. Embryol., 36: 167-196.

Terms

  • adenohypophyseal placode - Specialised cranial surface ectoderm placode region that will form the endocrine anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis).
  • adenohypophysis - (anterior pituitary, pars anterior) The anterior part of the pituitary, which develops in the early embryo from the surface ectoderm adenohypophyseal placode. This placode will fold inward on the roof of the pharynx forming a transient structure Rathke's pouch, that looses its connection with the surface.
  • anterior pituitary - (adenohypophysis, pars anterior, pars distalis)
  • neurohypophysis - (posterior pituitary)
  • pars tuberalis - (pars tuberalis of the hypophysis) anatomically is the region of anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) extending along the anterior and lateral surfaces of the hypophyseal stalk. Tuberalis principal cells are low columnar, with cytoplasm containing lipid droplets, glycogen granules, and some colloid droplets.
  • posterior pituitary - (neurohypophysis)
  • Rathke's pouch - An ectodermal fold in roof of pharynx forming anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and pars intermedia. Named after German embryologist and anatomist Martin Heinrich Rathke (1793 -1860). (More? Martin Heinrich Rathke)


External Links

External Links Notice - The dynamic nature of the internet may mean that some of these listed links may no longer function. If the link no longer works search the web with the link text or name. Links to any external commercial sites are provided for information purposes only and should never be considered an endorsement. UNSW Embryology is provided as an educational resource with no clinical information or commercial affiliation.


Glossary Links

Glossary: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Numbers | Symbols | Term Link



Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, March 28) Embryology Endocrine - Pituitary Development. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Endocrine_-_Pituitary_Development

What Links Here?
© Dr Mark Hill 2024, UNSW Embryology ISBN: 978 0 7334 2609 4 - UNSW CRICOS Provider Code No. 00098G