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==Preface==
==Preface==


More than half a century ago Wilhelm Preyer published a monograph «specielle Physiologie des Embryo« embodying not only a review of the literature of that day, but a great many new observations of his own as well. This boolc has occupied a rather unique Position in that it was long the only source of summarized knowledge concerning the activities of embryos and fetuses of many species. That no other boof has quite talcen its place is not surprising because, after initial exploration of the Held, physiologists turned their attention to more urgent problems concerning the adult. Within the last decade or two, interest has revived and a school of developmental physiology has come into being: Many of the subjects discussed by Preyer have been restudied prolitably by experimental methods not available in his time, and new observations have added facts of great signiiicance to our conception of life before birth. Few biologists, however, are aware of all that has been accomplished during the last few years.
More than half a century ago Wilhelm Preyer published a monograph "''specielle Physiologie des Embryo''" embodying not only a review of the literature of that day, but a great many new observations of his own as well. This boolc has occupied a rather unique Position in that it was long the only source of summarized knowledge concerning the activities of embryos and fetuses of many species. That no other boof has quite talcen its place is not surprising because, after initial exploration of the Held, physiologists turned their attention to more urgent problems concerning the adult. Within the last decade or two, interest has revived and a school of developmental physiology has come into being: Many of the subjects discussed by Preyer have been restudied profitably by experimental methods not available in his time, and new observations have added facts of great signiiicance to our conception of life before birth. Few biologists, however, are aware of all that has been accomplished during the last few years.




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Originally I thought to produce a more comprehensive review somewhat similar to that of Preyer, but my first excursions into Helds with which I had been only slightly familiar before demonstrated the futility of doing so within a single small volume. some of the purposes of the taslc would have been defeated by undertaking lengthy detailed discussions Furthermore, a great deal has been written on subjects with· which I feel incompetent to deal critically. This is particularly true of nutrition and metabolism. To do justice to these subjects would have meant- duplication of much that is contained in Joseph Needham’s splendid «Chemical Embryology." Therefore I determined to place emphasis upon the more strictly physiologic aspects of prenatal life and to enter into the chemistry of the fetus only to the point of supplying the reader with brief up-to-date synopses for the salce of completeness.
Originally I thought to produce a more comprehensive review somewhat similar to that of Preyer, but my first excursions into Helds with which I had been only slightly familiar before demonstrated the futility of doing so within a single small volume. some of the purposes of the taslc would have been defeated by undertaking lengthy detailed discussions Furthermore, a great deal has been written on subjects with· which I feel incompetent to deal critically. This is particularly true of nutrition and metabolism. To do justice to these subjects would have meant duplication of much that is contained in Joseph Needham’s splendid "Chemical Embryology". Therefore I determined to place emphasis upon the more strictly physiologic aspects of prenatal life and to enter into the chemistry of the fetus only to the point of supplying the reader with brief up-to-date synopses for the salce of completeness.




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==Contents==
==Contents==
 
[[File:Windle1940 title page.jpg|thumb|400px]]
CHAPTTER I
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 1|'''Introduction''']]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 1#Relation of Fetal to Maternal Organism|Relation of Fetal to Maternal Organism]]
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 1#Experimental Methods|Experimental Methods]]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 1#References Cited|References Cited]]
Relation of Fetal to Maternal Organism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2|'''The Fetal Heart''']]
Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#Initiation of the Heart Beat|Initiation of the Heart Beat]]
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. to
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#The Fetal Electrocardiogram|The Fetal Electrocardiogram]]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#The Fetal Pulse Rate|The Fetal Pulse Rate]]
CHAPTER II
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#Nervous Control of the Fetal Heart and Circulation|Nervous Control of the Fetal Heart and Circulation]]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#Arteria1 B1ood Pressure|Arteria1 B1ood Pressure]]
THE FETAL HEART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#Venous Blood Pressure|Venous Blood Pressure]]
Initiation of the Heart Beat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 2#References Cited|References Cited]]
The Fetal Electrocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 3|'''The Fetal Circulation''']]
The Fetal Pulse Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . « 15
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 3#Volume of Blood and Rate of Circulation|Volume of Blood and Rate of Circulation]]
Nervous control of the Fetal Heart and circulation . . . 18
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 3#The Course of the Fetal B1ood|The Course of the Fetal B1ood]]
Arteria1 B1ood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 3#Changes in the Circulation at Birth|Changes in the Circulation at Birth]]
Venous Blood Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 25
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 3#References Cited|References Cited]]
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4|'''The Blood of the Fetus''']]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#The Red Blood Corpuscles|The Red Blood Corpuscles]]
CHAPTER III
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#Oxygen Carrying Power of Fetal Blood|Oxygen Carrying Power of Fetal Blood]]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#The Leukocytes and Platelets|The Leukocytes and Platelets]]
THE FETAL cmCULATIoN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#The Plasma|The Plasma]]
 
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#The Cerebrospinal Fluid|The Cerebrospinal Fluid]]
Volume of B1ood and Rate of Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
## [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 4#References Cited|References Cited]]
 
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 5|'''Fetal Respiration''']]
The course of the Fetal B1ood .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
## The Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange
 
## The Oxygen capacity of the Blood
changes in the circulation at Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
## Dissociation Curves
 
## Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide contents of Fetal Blood
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
## Asphyxia at Birth
 
## References Cited
oHAPTER 1v
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 6|'''Fetal Respiratory Movements''']]
THE BLOOD OF THE FETUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
## Respiratory Movements in the Intact Animal
 
## Respiratory Movernents under Experimental Conditions
The Red B1ood Corkzuscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
## Relation of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide to Respiratory Movements
 
## Other Factors in the Development of Respiration
Oxygen Carrying Power of Fetal B1ood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . « 53
## Aspiration of Amniotic Contents
 
## Fetal Hiccup
The Leulcocytes and Platelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
## Summary
 
## References Cited
The Plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . 56
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 7|'''The Fetal Digestive System''']]
 
## Fetal Swallowing
The cerebrospinal Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
## Fetal Gastric Motility
 
## Fetal Intestinal Movements
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
## Absorption in the Fetal Digestive Tract
 
## Defecation and Meconiophagy in Amnio
 
## The Fetal Digestive Glands Enzymes
CHAPTER V Page
## References Cited
 
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 8|'''The Fetal Kidney And Fluids The Fetal Skin''']]
FETAL RESPIRATION . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
## Development of Kidney Function
The Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
## Physiologic Development of the Nephric Tubules
The Oxygen capacity of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
## Conditions Regulating Renal Function
Dissociation Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
## Changes in Elimination at Birth
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide contents of Fetal Blood . . 69
## The Fetal Urine
Asphyxia at Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
## The Allantoic F1uid
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
## The Amniotic Fluid
 
## The Fetal skin
» CHAPTER vI
## References Cited
 
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 9|'''The Fetal Muscles''']]
FETAL REsPIRAToRY MovEMENTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
## Tissue Cultures and In-vitro Experiments
Respiratory Movements in the Ititact Animal . . . . . . . . . 78
## Spontaneous Activity of Intact skeletal Muscle
 
## Faradic and Mechanical Stimulation
Respiratory Movernents under Experimental Conditions 8o
## The Fetal Tetanic Reaction
Relation of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide to Respiratory
## Excitation of Fetal Musc1e by Nerve Stimulation
 
## Effects of curare
Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
## Feta1 Rigor Mortis
 
## References Cited
Other Factors in the Development of Respiration .. .. 88
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 10|'''The Genesis of Function in the Nervous System''']]
Aspiration of Amniotic contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · . . .. 91
## Myogenic Responses
Fetal Hiccup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
## Neuromotor Responses
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .« . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
## Genesis of Reflex Behavior
References cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
## The Concept of a Total Pattern
 
## EarIy Reflexes in Mammalian Embryos
CHAPTER VII
## Other sirnple Reflexes and Their Integration
 
## References Cited
THE FETAL D1GEsT1VE sYsTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 11|'''Conditions Regulating Fetal Nervous Activity''']]
 
## The Plan of Structural Development of the Fetal Brain
Fetal swallowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
### Order of Development in Functional Systems
 
### Growth of Other Circuits for Reflexes and Higher Integration
Fetal Gastric Motility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
### Myelogeny as Related to Function in the Nervous System
 
## Factors Other than Structural Growth
Fetal Intestinal Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 103
### The Quiescence of Intra-Uterine Life
 
### Afferent Stimulation In Utero
Absorption in the Fetal Digestive Tract . . . . . . . . . . . ». 106
### Neural Threshold to Stimulation
 
### Muscle Tonus and Mass Movement
Defecation and Meconiophagy in Amnio . . . . » . . . . . . . . . 1o7
### Susceptibility Gradients to Asphyxia
 
### Inhibition of Motor Mechanisms by Higher Centers
The Fetal Digestive Glands Enzymes . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . 108
## References Cited
 
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 12|'''Fetal Motor Reactions and Reflexes''']]
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11o
## Development of Feeding Reactions
 
## Development of Posture and Progression
CHAPTER VIII
## Development Of Eye Reflexes
 
## Development Of Palmar And Plantar Reflexes
THE FETAL KIDNEY AND FLUIDS THE FETAL SKIN . . 1 12
## Other Reflexes
 
## References Cited
Development of Kidney Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 13|'''The Fetal Senses''']]
Physiologic Development of the Nephric Tubules . . . . . 1 14
## The Fetal Skin as a Receptor Organ
Conditions Regulating Renal F unction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17
### Pnsssure Touch and Pain
Changes in Elimination at. Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
### Temperature Sensitivity
 
## Proprioceptive Function in the Fetus
The Fetal Urine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . .. 120
## Olfactory Gustatory and Visceral Senses
The Allantoic F1uid . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
## Hearing and Vision
The Amniotic Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
## References Cited
The Fetal slcin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 14|'''The Fetal Endocrine Glands''']]
lseferences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 126
## The Suprarenal Cortex
 
## The Suprarenal Medulla
CHAPTER 1X
## The Sex Hormones
 
## The Thyroid Gland
THE FETAL MUsCLEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
## The Parathyroid Glands
 
## The Thymus
Tissue Cultures and In-vitro Experiments . . . . . . . . . .. 128
## The Hypophysis
 
## Secretin
spontaneous Activity of Intact slceletal Musc1e . . . . . .. 130
## The Endocrine Pancreas
 
## References Cited
Faradic and Mechanical stimu1ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 15|'''Fetal Nutrition and Metabolism''']]
 
## Paraplacental Nutrition
The Fetal Tetanic Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133
## Inorganic Metabolism
Excitation of Fetal Musc1e by Nerve stimülation . . . . . 135
## Energy Metabolism
Efkects of curare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
## References Cited
Feta1 Rigor Mortis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
# [[Book - Physiology of the Fetus 16|Figures]]
References Cited , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
 
 
CHAPTER X
 
THE. cENEsls OF FUNCTION IN THE NERVOUS sYsTEM 138
 
Myogenic Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
 
N euromotor Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14o
 
Genesis of ReAex Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
 
The concept of a Total Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
 
EarIy Reflexes in Mammalian Embryos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
 
0ther sirnple Reilexes and Their Integration . . . . . . . . 153
 
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
 
CHAPTER xl
 
CONDIT10Ns REGULATING FETAL NERVOUS ACT1VITY 158
 
The Plan of structural Development of the Fetal Brain 158
(a) Order of Development in Functional Systems 16o
(l)) Growth of 0ther circuits for Reliexes and.
 
Higher Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·. 162
 
(c·) Myelogeny as Related to Function in the Ner— «
vous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
Factors Other than structural Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
(a) The Quiescence of Intra-uterine Life . . . . . . . 164
 
(b) Afkerent stirnulation in«Utero . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
xä coNTENTs
 
. Fast?
(c) Neura1 Thresholds to stimulation . . . . . . . . .. 166
(d) Musc1e Tonus and Mass Movements . . . . . . . . 168
(e) susceptibility Gradients to Asphyxia . . . . . . . . 169
(j) Inhibition of Motor Mechanisms by Higher
centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . «« 170
References cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . « . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
 
 
CHAPTER Xll
 
FETAL MOTOR REACTIONS AND REFLEXES . . . . . . . . . . 173
 
Development of Feeding Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
 
Development of Posture and Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
 
Development of Eye ReHexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.79
 
Development of Palmar and Plantar Reflexes . . . . . . . . 180
 
Other Reiiexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  181
 
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
 
CHAPTER X1II
 
THE FETAL sENsEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
 
The Fetal slcin as a Receptor Organ . . . .« . . . . . . . - . . . . . 184
 
(a) Pressure, Touch and Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
 
(b) Temperature sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186
 
Proprioceptive Function in the Fetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
 
0lkactory, Gustatory and Visceral senses . . . . . . . . . . .. 188
 
Hearing and Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
 
References Cited » . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
 
CHAPTER XIV THE FETAL ENDOCRINE GLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
 
The suprarenal Cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . .. 191
 
The suprarenal Medulla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
 
The sex Horrnones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195
 
The Thyroid Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197
 
The Parathyroid Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 198
 
The Thymus . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
 
The Hypophysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199
 
secretin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200
 
The, Endocrine Pancreas , ». . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200
 
References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
 
 
FETAL NUTRITION AND METABcLlsM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
 
Paraplacental Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206
 
Placental Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207
 
Metabolism of Carbohyclrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Io
 
Metabolism of Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
 
Metabolism of Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
 
Inorganic Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
 
Energy Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 222
 
Rekerences Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FETUS




{{Footer}}
{{Footer}}
[[Category:Textbook]][[Category:Historic Embryology]][[Category:1940's]][[Category:Fetal]]</noinclude>
[[Category:Textbook]][[Category:Historic Embryology]][[Category:1940's]][[Category:Fetal]]</noinclude>

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Windle WF. Physiology of the Fetus. (1940) Saunders, Philadelphia.

1940 Physiology of the Fetus: 1 Introduction | 2 Heart | 3 Circulation | 4 Blood | 5 Respiration | 6 Respiratory Movements | 7 Digestive | 8 Renal - Skin | 9 Muscles | 10 Neural Genesis | 11 Neural Activity | 12 Motor Reactions and Reflexes | 13 Senses | 14 Endocrine | 15 Nutrition and Metabolism | Figures

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This 1940 textbook by Prof William Frederick Windle (1898-1986) describes human fetal physiology as it was understood at that time. His research collection consists of paper documents, plus approximately 25,000 feet of motion pictures, over 400 slides, photographs, and a few artifacts. The materials span the years 1918-1986. (More? See Online Archives of California)



See also: Historic Embryology Textbooks

Also by this author: Windle WF. (1970). Development of neural elements in human embryos of four to seven weeks gestation. Exp. Neurol. , 28, Suppl:44-83. PMID: 4097652

Modern Notes:

Fetal Links: fetal | Week 10 | Week 12 | second trimester | third trimester | fetal neural | Fetal Blood Sampling | fetal growth restriction | birth | birth weight | preterm birth | Developmental Origins of Health and Disease | macrosomia | BGD Practical | Medicine Lecture | Science Lecture | Lecture Movie | Category:Human Fetus | Category:Fetal
Historic Embryology  
1940 Fetus Physiology
Carnegie Fetal: 95 | 96 | 142 | 145 | 184 | 211 | 217 | 300 | 362 | 448 | 449 | 538 | 590 | 607 | 625 | 662 | 693 | 847 | 858 | 922 | 928 | 948 | 972 | 1318 | 1388 | 1455 | 1591 | 1597b | 1656 | 1686 | 2250a | 2250b | 3990 | 5652 | 6581 | 7218
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Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

Physiology of the Fetus

William Frederick Windle
William Frederick Windle (1898-1986)

Origin and Extent of Function in Prenatal Life


By

William Frederick Windle

Professor of Microscopic Anatomy, Northwestern University Medical School



W.B. Saunders Company Philadelphia and London, 1940

Preface

More than half a century ago Wilhelm Preyer published a monograph "specielle Physiologie des Embryo" embodying not only a review of the literature of that day, but a great many new observations of his own as well. This boolc has occupied a rather unique Position in that it was long the only source of summarized knowledge concerning the activities of embryos and fetuses of many species. That no other boof has quite talcen its place is not surprising because, after initial exploration of the Held, physiologists turned their attention to more urgent problems concerning the adult. Within the last decade or two, interest has revived and a school of developmental physiology has come into being: Many of the subjects discussed by Preyer have been restudied profitably by experimental methods not available in his time, and new observations have added facts of great signiiicance to our conception of life before birth. Few biologists, however, are aware of all that has been accomplished during the last few years.


My main purpose in writing the present boolc was to assemble and summarize scattered physiologic observations on fetuses for my own information and for that of my students. I hope that the result will be useful to others who are working in fetal physiology and perhaps will help direct attention to problems which«need to be investigated Another purpose was to provide a supplement for courses in embryo1ogy to help stress functional aspects of development; this is in line with current trends of medical teaching. Finally, I had in mind those in allied lields, especially neurology, psychology and pediatrics, who are interested in problems of behavior and who have frequent occasion to desire knowledge of prenatal physiology.


Originally I thought to produce a more comprehensive review somewhat similar to that of Preyer, but my first excursions into Helds with which I had been only slightly familiar before demonstrated the futility of doing so within a single small volume. some of the purposes of the taslc would have been defeated by undertaking lengthy detailed discussions Furthermore, a great deal has been written on subjects with· which I feel incompetent to deal critically. This is particularly true of nutrition and metabolism. To do justice to these subjects would have meant duplication of much that is contained in Joseph Needham’s splendid "Chemical Embryology". Therefore I determined to place emphasis upon the more strictly physiologic aspects of prenatal life and to enter into the chemistry of the fetus only to the point of supplying the reader with brief up-to-date synopses for the salce of completeness.


It is clearly realized that the present boolc is incomplete in respect to many subjects which might have been included had arbitrary limits not been set down. It was in many instances diilicult to draw the line between physiology and anatomy. Determinate growth in the early stages of development was of necessity ignored entirely, and many very interesting observations in experimental embryology of lower vertebrates (indeed, most of the studies in inframammalian species) ,have been purposely omitted or mentioned only brieHy. As much as possible, therefore, I have tried to limit consideration to mammals, and especially to the higher mammals, but I have brought in observations on other animals when these seem to add siguilicantly to our knowledge of human physiology.


Bibliographic references are placed at the end of each chaptetn Even though this involves some repetition, it was thought to be a more useful plan than to collect them at the end of the boof. Citations have been used freely, but no attempt has been made to include all references on any subject: In most instances, preliminary articles and many of the older papers discussed by Preyer have been left out and only the more recent key references included.


Acknowledgments are due a number of individuals and groups who have contributed directly and indirectly to my program of investigation in fetal physiology and to the present book. In the Hrst place, I am grateful to my teachers and colleagues, especially Professors L. B. Arey, s. W. Ranson and A. C. Ivy, for helpful criticisms and suggestions My graduate students and associates in research during the past ten years have contributed notably to the project and have provided the incentive to proceed with it. To sir Joseph Baker-oft, in whose laboratory I was a guest during the winter on 1935-36, belongs credit kor kindling my interest in respiratory physiologzn Finally, to the National Research council, the Ella sachs Plotz Foundation, The American Academy of Arts and sciences. The Chijd Neurology Research Council (Friedsham Foundation) , and The J0hn and Mary R. Marlcle Foundation, all of whom have generously supplied kunds to aid my investigations, I wish to extend thanks.


W. F. MoRE than half a century ago Wilhelm Preyer published a monograph «specielle Physiologie des Embryo« embodying not only a review of the literature of that day, but a great many new observations of his own as well. This boolc has occupied a rather unique Position in that it was long the only source of summarized knowledge concerning the activities of embryos and fetuses of many species. That no other book has quite talcen its place is not surprising because, after initial exploration of the Held, physiologists turned their attention to more urgent problems concerning the adult. Within the last decade or two, interest has revived and a school of developmental physiology has come into being: Many of the subjects discussed by Preyer have been restudied prolitably by experimental methods not available in his time, and new observations have added facts of great signiiicance to our conception of life before birth. Few biologists, however, are aware of all that has been accomplished during the last few years.


My main purpose in writing the present boolc was to assemble and summarize scattered physiologic observations on fetuses for my own information and for that of my students. I hope that the result will be useful to others who are working in fetal physiology and perhaps will help direct attention to problems which«need to be investigated Another purpose was to provide a supplement for courses in embryo1ogy to help stress functional aspects of development; this is in line with current trends of medical teaching. Finally, I had in mind those in allied lields, especially neurology, psychology and pediatrics, who are interested in problems of behavior and who have frequent occasion to desire knowledge of prenatal physiology.


Originally I thought to produce a more comprehensive review somewhat similar to that of Preyer, but my first excursions into Helds with which I had been only slightly familiar before demonstrated the futility of doing so within a single small volume. some of the purposes of the taslc would have been defeated by undertaking lengthy detailed discussions Furthermore, a great deal has been written on subjects with· which I feel incompetent to deal critically. This is particularly true of nutrition and metabolism. To do justice to these subjects would have meant- duplication of much that is contained in Joseph Needham’s splendid «Chemical Embryology." Therefore I determined to place emphasis upon the more strictly physiologic aspects of prenatal life and to enter into the chemistry of the fetus only to the point of supplying the reader with brief up-to-date synopses for the salce of completeness.


It is clearly realized that the present boolc is incomplete in respect to many subjects which might have been included had arbitrary limits not been set down. It was in many instances diilicult to draw the line between physiology and anatomy. Determinate growth in the early stages of development was of necessity ignored entirely, and many very interesting observations in experimental embryology of lower vertebrates (indeed, most of the studies in inframammalian species) ,have been purposely omitted or mentioned only brieHy. As much as possible, therefore, I have tried to limit consideration to mammals, and especially to the higher mammals, but I have brought in observations on other animals when these seem to add siguilicantly to our knowledge of human physiology.


Bibliographic references are placed at the end of each chaptetn Even though this -involves some repetition, it was thought to be a more useful plan than to collect them at the end of the book. Citations have been used freely, but no attempt has been made to include all references on any subject: In most instances, preliminary articles and many of the older papers discussed by Preyer have been left out and only the more recent key references included.


Aclcnowledgments are due a number of individuals and groups who have contributed directly and indirectly to my program of investigation in fetal physiology and to the present book. In the Hrst place, I am grateful to my teachers and colleagues, especially Professors L. B. Arey, s. W. Ranson and A. C. Ivy, for helpful criticisms and suggestions My graduate students and associates in research during the past ten years have contributed notably to the project and have provided the incentive to proceed with it. To sir Joseph Bakeroft, in whose laboratory I was a guest during the winter in 1935-36, belongs credit kor kindling my interest in respiratory physiologzn Finally, to the National Research council, the Ella sachs Plotz Foundation, The American Academy of Arts and sciences. The Chijd Neurology Research Council (Friedsham Foundation) , and The J0hn and Mary R. Markle Foundation, all of whom have generously supplied kunds to aid my investigations, I wish to extend thanks.


W. F. Windle.

Contents

Windle1940 title page.jpg
  1. Introduction
    1. Relation of Fetal to Maternal Organism
    2. Experimental Methods
    3. References Cited
  2. The Fetal Heart
    1. Initiation of the Heart Beat
    2. The Fetal Electrocardiogram
    3. The Fetal Pulse Rate
    4. Nervous Control of the Fetal Heart and Circulation
    5. Arteria1 B1ood Pressure
    6. Venous Blood Pressure
    7. References Cited
  3. The Fetal Circulation
    1. Volume of Blood and Rate of Circulation
    2. The Course of the Fetal B1ood
    3. Changes in the Circulation at Birth
    4. References Cited
  4. The Blood of the Fetus
    1. The Red Blood Corpuscles
    2. Oxygen Carrying Power of Fetal Blood
    3. The Leukocytes and Platelets
    4. The Plasma
    5. The Cerebrospinal Fluid
    6. References Cited
  5. Fetal Respiration
    1. The Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange
    2. The Oxygen capacity of the Blood
    3. Dissociation Curves
    4. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide contents of Fetal Blood
    5. Asphyxia at Birth
    6. References Cited
  6. Fetal Respiratory Movements
    1. Respiratory Movements in the Intact Animal
    2. Respiratory Movernents under Experimental Conditions
    3. Relation of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide to Respiratory Movements
    4. Other Factors in the Development of Respiration
    5. Aspiration of Amniotic Contents
    6. Fetal Hiccup
    7. Summary
    8. References Cited
  7. The Fetal Digestive System
    1. Fetal Swallowing
    2. Fetal Gastric Motility
    3. Fetal Intestinal Movements
    4. Absorption in the Fetal Digestive Tract
    5. Defecation and Meconiophagy in Amnio
    6. The Fetal Digestive Glands Enzymes
    7. References Cited
  8. The Fetal Kidney And Fluids The Fetal Skin
    1. Development of Kidney Function
    2. Physiologic Development of the Nephric Tubules
    3. Conditions Regulating Renal Function
    4. Changes in Elimination at Birth
    5. The Fetal Urine
    6. The Allantoic F1uid
    7. The Amniotic Fluid
    8. The Fetal skin
    9. References Cited
  9. The Fetal Muscles
    1. Tissue Cultures and In-vitro Experiments
    2. Spontaneous Activity of Intact skeletal Muscle
    3. Faradic and Mechanical Stimulation
    4. The Fetal Tetanic Reaction
    5. Excitation of Fetal Musc1e by Nerve Stimulation
    6. Effects of curare
    7. Feta1 Rigor Mortis
    8. References Cited
  10. The Genesis of Function in the Nervous System
    1. Myogenic Responses
    2. Neuromotor Responses
    3. Genesis of Reflex Behavior
    4. The Concept of a Total Pattern
    5. EarIy Reflexes in Mammalian Embryos
    6. Other sirnple Reflexes and Their Integration
    7. References Cited
  11. Conditions Regulating Fetal Nervous Activity
    1. The Plan of Structural Development of the Fetal Brain
      1. Order of Development in Functional Systems
      2. Growth of Other Circuits for Reflexes and Higher Integration
      3. Myelogeny as Related to Function in the Nervous System
    2. Factors Other than Structural Growth
      1. The Quiescence of Intra-Uterine Life
      2. Afferent Stimulation In Utero
      3. Neural Threshold to Stimulation
      4. Muscle Tonus and Mass Movement
      5. Susceptibility Gradients to Asphyxia
      6. Inhibition of Motor Mechanisms by Higher Centers
    3. References Cited
  12. Fetal Motor Reactions and Reflexes
    1. Development of Feeding Reactions
    2. Development of Posture and Progression
    3. Development Of Eye Reflexes
    4. Development Of Palmar And Plantar Reflexes
    5. Other Reflexes
    6. References Cited
  13. The Fetal Senses
    1. The Fetal Skin as a Receptor Organ
      1. Pnsssure Touch and Pain
      2. Temperature Sensitivity
    2. Proprioceptive Function in the Fetus
    3. Olfactory Gustatory and Visceral Senses
    4. Hearing and Vision
    5. References Cited
  14. The Fetal Endocrine Glands
    1. The Suprarenal Cortex
    2. The Suprarenal Medulla
    3. The Sex Hormones
    4. The Thyroid Gland
    5. The Parathyroid Glands
    6. The Thymus
    7. The Hypophysis
    8. Secretin
    9. The Endocrine Pancreas
    10. References Cited
  15. Fetal Nutrition and Metabolism
    1. Paraplacental Nutrition
    2. Inorganic Metabolism
    3. Energy Metabolism
    4. References Cited
  16. Figures



Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, March 28) Embryology Book - Physiology of the Fetus. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Book_-_Physiology_of_the_Fetus

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