https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&feed=atom&action=historyBook - Contributions to Embryology Carnegie Institution No.56-6 - Revision history2024-03-19T09:25:41ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.39.6https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109963&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Chapter 6. Sex-Incidence in Abortions */2012-11-23T23:20:50Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Chapter 6. Sex-Incidence in Abortions</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Chapter 6. Sex-Incidence in Abortions==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Chapter 6. Sex-Incidence in Abortions==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">BY ADOLPH </del>H. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">SCHULTZ.</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">By Adolph </ins>H. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Schultz</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The numerical proportion of the sexes has always been a subject of great interest. The question whether man produces males and females in equal or unequal numbers bears a close relation to the problem of sex determination and must be studied in connection with the death-rate in different periods of life and the comparative sex-mortality. While sex-ratio is conditioned originally upon sexdetermination, mortality may change it in the course of time. It will be shown herein that sex-ratio is not constant, but varies in the different periods of life and under manifold influences. Most of the information at hand concerning it is derived from statistics of the new-born and adult, but as regards intrauterine life, as far back as conception, our knowledge is limited to a few incomplete statistics and conflicting estimates. The main purpose of this study is to elucidate as far as possible this problem of the proportion of the sexes in utero, both living and aborted. The short review of the sex-ratio after birth, given herein, is intended to show the fluctuations in the numerical proportion of the sexes throughout life and may serve for a comparison of the relative mortality before and after birth. The last part of the study is a compilation from the literature of factors which may possibly have an influence on the original sex-ratio and of conditions which may change it during the course of prenatal life.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The numerical proportion of the sexes has always been a subject of great interest. The question whether man produces males and females in equal or unequal numbers bears a close relation to the problem of sex determination and must be studied in connection with the death-rate in different periods of life and the comparative sex-mortality. While sex-ratio is conditioned originally upon sexdetermination, mortality may change it in the course of time. It will be shown herein that sex-ratio is not constant, but varies in the different periods of life and under manifold influences. Most of the information at hand concerning it is derived from statistics of the new-born and adult, but as regards intrauterine life, as far back as conception, our knowledge is limited to a few incomplete statistics and conflicting estimates. The main purpose of this study is to elucidate as far as possible this problem of the proportion of the sexes in utero, both living and aborted. The short review of the sex-ratio after birth, given herein, is intended to show the fluctuations in the numerical proportion of the sexes throughout life and may serve for a comparison of the relative mortality before and after birth. The last part of the study is a compilation from the literature of factors which may possibly have an influence on the original sex-ratio and of conditions which may change it during the course of prenatal life.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In view of the generally accepted supposition that sex is determined either before or at the time of fertilization, one may speak of a sex-ratio at conception or a sex-ratio of fertilized ova. This may also be called an original, physiological, or primary sex-ratio; the sex-ratio of the new-born may be termed secondary and, finally, that of adults is the tertiary sex-ratio. The latter term, in contrast to the preceding ones, does not apply to a definite time, such as conception or birth, but may be used collectively to designate the changing numerical proportion of the sexes after they reach maturity.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In view of the generally accepted supposition that sex is determined either before or at the time of fertilization, one may speak of a sex-ratio at conception or a sex-ratio of fertilized ova. This may also be called an original, physiological, or primary sex-ratio; the sex-ratio of the new-born may be termed secondary and, finally, that of adults is the tertiary sex-ratio. The latter term, in contrast to the preceding ones, does not apply to a definite time, such as conception or birth, but may be used collectively to designate the changing numerical proportion of the sexes after they reach maturity.</div></td></tr>
</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109961&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Primary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-23T18:18:45Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Primary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>G. Percentage distribution of abortions in different months of pregnancy. (Adapted from Nichols.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>G. Percentage distribution of abortions in different months of pregnancy. (Adapted from Nichols.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>H. Sex-ratio of still-born. (From Morgan.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>H. Sex-ratio of still-born. (From Morgan.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>I. Sex-ratio of abortions in different months. (From Auerbach.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>I. Sex-ratio of abortions in different months. (From Auerbach.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>J. Sex-ratio of abortions and still-births in different months. (Adapted from Nichols.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>J. Sex-ratio of abortions and still-births in different months. (Adapted from Nichols.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>K. Sex-ratio of 1,410 fetuses from different months.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>K. Sex-ratio of 1,410 fetuses from different months.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109959&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Table F. */2012-11-23T18:17:07Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Table F.</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Table F.===</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Table F. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sex ratio of mortality during first year of life. (Prinzing.)</ins>===</div></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109957&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Secondary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-23T18:15:20Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Secondary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>We have very little data concerning the sex-ratio of new-born among races other than white. Newcomb (1904) states that in Japan the excess of males in over 1,000,000 births was practically the same as in European countries. According to the same author, it seems probable that among the negroes of the United States there is a slight excess of female births. In a table by Nichols (1907) one finds the following sex-ratios among the living-born of primitive races: Japan (1877-1902), 104.7; India (1891-1900), 107.5; negroes of United States (1900), 99.8; and an average since 1880 of 100.9.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>We have very little data concerning the sex-ratio of new-born among races other than white. Newcomb (1904) states that in Japan the excess of males in over 1,000,000 births was practically the same as in European countries. According to the same author, it seems probable that among the negroes of the United States there is a slight excess of female births. In a table by Nichols (1907) one finds the following sex-ratios among the living-born of primitive races: Japan (1877-1902), 104.7; India (1891-1900), 107.5; negroes of United States (1900), 99.8; and an average since 1880 of 100.9.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table E. Secondary sex-ratio. (From Ploss.)===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table F.===</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE E. Secondary sex-ratio. (From Ploss</del>.<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">)</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[File:Mall_Meyer1921_tableF</ins>.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">jpg]]</ins></div></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109952&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Tertiary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-23T18:07:54Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Tertiary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>A. Number of females per 1,000 males. (From Rauber.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>A. Number of females per 1,000 males. (From Rauber.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[File:Mall_Meyer1921_tableA.jpg]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>B. Changes in sex-ratio with advancing age. (From Prinzing.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>B. Changes in sex-ratio with advancing age. (From Prinzing.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[File:Mall_Meyer1921_tableB.jpg]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Table A, taken from Rauber (1900), represents the number of females to every 1,000 males in some of the European countries. As will be noted, the excess of females increases with age. This is still more clearly shown in table B, from Prinzing (1905), taken from the census of 1900 in Germany. Inasmuch as in Europe sex-ratio at birth favors males, its subsequent decrease must be the result of a greater mortality among the latter, and also, in some countries, of a greater emigration of males. The unequal mortality is shown in table C, from Ploss (1887).</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Table A, taken from Rauber (1900), represents the number of females to every 1,000 males in some of the European countries. As will be noted, the excess of females increases with age. This is still more clearly shown in table B, from Prinzing (1905), taken from the census of 1900 in Germany. Inasmuch as in Europe sex-ratio at birth favors males, its subsequent decrease must be the result of a greater mortality among the latter, and also, in some countries, of a greater emigration of males. The unequal mortality is shown in table C, from Ploss (1887).</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE </del>C. Sex-ratio of mortality in European countries. (From Ploss.)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table </ins>C. Sex-ratio of mortality in European countries. (From Ploss.)<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">===Table D. Excess of male death-rate (per 1,000 population) over female death-rate. (From Baker.)===</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">TABLE D</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Excess of male death-rate (per 1,000 population) over female death-rate. (From Baker.)</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[File:Mall_Meyer1921_tableD</ins>.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">jpg]]</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Bell (1918), in his studies on the Hyde genealogy, found that during the years covering the child-bearing period the death-rate was greater among females than among males. His conclusions were based, however, upon comparatively small statistics. In opposition to this we have the more reliable conclusion of Willcox (1904) that, according to the life tables of several entire countries, the death-rate of women between 20 and 30 years of age (a period during which probably fourfifths of the child-births occur) was less than that of males of the same age.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Bell (1918), in his studies on the Hyde genealogy, found that during the years covering the child-bearing period the death-rate was greater among females than among males. His conclusions were based, however, upon comparatively small statistics. In opposition to this we have the more reliable conclusion of Willcox (1904) that, according to the life tables of several entire countries, the death-rate of women between 20 and 30 years of age (a period during which probably fourfifths of the child-births occur) was less than that of males of the same age.</div></td></tr>
</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109861&oldid=prevZ8600021 at 01:13, 22 November 20122012-11-22T01:13:37Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to make use of the above citations and figures in computing the primary sex-ratio, rough and approximately average values must first be established. The following appear to be most probable: For each 100 living-born, with a sex-ratio of 105.5, there occur in the eighth to the tenth month 4 still-births with a sex ratio of 130; in the fifth to the seventh month 7 abortions with a sex-ratio of 106; in the fourth month 2 abortions with a sex-ratio of 120; and from conception to the end of the third month 15 abortions with a sex-ratio of 125. This makes altogether 28 abortions and still-births to every 100 living-born; i.e., 100 living-born to every 128 fertilized ova. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1 </del>The primary sex-ratio found from these averages by simple mathematical operations is 108.74. The writer's last calculation of the primary sex-ratio (1918) resulted in 108.47. The very small increase in the corresponding value of the present study serves as a confirmation of the previous finding. The sex-ratio at conception was estimated by Bernoulli as 108.2. Slightly higher (108.7) is the ratio computed by Jendrassik (1911) from statistics collected by Bodio. Both of these figures are strikingly similar to that of the author. Lenhossek (1903) estimates the primary sex-ratio as 111, Auerbach as 116.4, but the latter believes that it would reach at least 125 if corrections were made.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In order to make use of the above citations and figures in computing the primary sex-ratio, rough and approximately average values must first be established. The following appear to be most probable: For each 100 living-born, with a sex-ratio of 105.5, there occur in the eighth to the tenth month 4 still-births with a sex ratio of 130; in the fifth to the seventh month 7 abortions with a sex-ratio of 106; in the fourth month 2 abortions with a sex-ratio of 120; and from conception to the end of the third month 15 abortions with a sex-ratio of 125. This makes altogether 28 abortions and still-births to every 100 living-born; i.e., 100 living-born to every 128 fertilized ova.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref>The most common method in use for representing the sex-ratio is to determine a number which indicates the proportion of males to every 100 females. Unless otherwise stated, this ia the method used herein. The sex-ratio is also frequently termed masculinity.</ref> </ins>The primary sex-ratio found from these averages by simple mathematical operations is 108.74. The writer's last calculation of the primary sex-ratio (1918) resulted in 108.47. The very small increase in the corresponding value of the present study serves as a confirmation of the previous finding. The sex-ratio at conception was estimated by Bernoulli as 108.2. Slightly higher (108.7) is the ratio computed by Jendrassik (1911) from statistics collected by Bodio. Both of these figures are strikingly similar to that of the author. Lenhossek (1903) estimates the primary sex-ratio as 111, Auerbach as 116.4, but the latter believes that it would reach at least 125 if corrections were made.</div></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109860&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Tertiary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-22T01:13:13Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Tertiary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The consideration of sex-ratio in adults will be limited to generalities. According to BUcher (1892), for Europe the sex-ratio<ref><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The most common method in use for representing the sex-ratio is to determine a number which indicates the proportion of males to every 100 females. Unless otherwise stated, this ia the method used herein. The sex-ratio is also frequently termed masculinity.</del></ref>, including all ages, is 97.6; for Asia 104.5; for Africa 103.3; for America 102.8; for Australia 117.4. However imperfect these computations may be, they nevertheless show that Europe, with its excess of females, occupies a unique position. There are only a few European countries with a greater proportion of men than women. Among the American negroes there is an excess of females, and among the American Indians an excess of males (Cummings, 1918). According to Brooks (1887), the Australasian colonies had in 1881 a sex-ratio of 143.7 for the aborigines, and one of 118.6 for the population of foreign descent.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The consideration of sex-ratio in adults will be limited to generalities. According to BUcher (1892), for Europe the sex-ratio<ref><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">??</ins></ref>, including all ages, is 97.6; for Asia 104.5; for Africa 103.3; for America 102.8; for Australia 117.4. However imperfect these computations may be, they nevertheless show that Europe, with its excess of females, occupies a unique position. There are only a few European countries with a greater proportion of men than women. Among the American negroes there is an excess of females, and among the American Indians an excess of males (Cummings, 1918). According to Brooks (1887), the Australasian colonies had in 1881 a sex-ratio of 143.7 for the aborigines, and one of 118.6 for the population of foreign descent.</div></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109859&oldid=prevZ8600021 at 01:12, 22 November 20122012-11-22T01:12:07Z<p></p>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109858&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Changes in the Secondary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-22T01:11:30Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Changes in the Secondary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The excess of male still-births is ascribed by most authors to the more difficult labor attendant upon the greater size of the male,<ref>Von Winckel found among 1,000 new-born, of over 4,000 grams weight and 52 cm. length, a sex-ratio of 226.</ref> especially the circumference of the head. Button (1910) is of the opinion that at the time of birth the bones of the male skull are, as a rule, more firmly ossified than those of the female. He states also that with the advance of civilization the pelvic development in women is not proportionate to the cephalic development in infants. This perhaps explains the conclusion reached by Bluhm (1912), that the relative number of therapeutically induced premature births is increasing. That labor in case of male children more often demands artificial aid from the obstetrician than in case of females is shown by Prinzing, according to whom 6.18 per cent of male births in Wiirttemberg called for operative measures, as compared with 4.67 per cent of the female births. This, however, is not due alone to the greater size of the male infant. Von Winckel found that in 566 new-born infants of over 4,000 grams weight operative aid was necessary in only 3 per cent more cases than in births of lighter babies. Furthermore, the more difficult labor of the larger male child can not in itself be held responsible for the high sex-ratio of still-born infants, inasmuch as, according to Treichler (1895), 29.6 per cent, and, according to Prinzing (1907), 32.6 per cent, of all still-births are premature, and in the sex ratio of these size plays but little part. According to Ladame (1904), in Switzerland the number dying during labor constituted only 36.4 per cent of the total still-births. Finally, Von Winckel found that the death-rate among 1,000 new-born of over 4,000 grams weight was only 4.17 per cent.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The excess of male still-births is ascribed by most authors to the more difficult labor attendant upon the greater size of the male,<ref>Von Winckel found among 1,000 new-born, of over 4,000 grams weight and 52 cm. length, a sex-ratio of 226.</ref> especially the circumference of the head. Button (1910) is of the opinion that at the time of birth the bones of the male skull are, as a rule, more firmly ossified than those of the female. He states also that with the advance of civilization the pelvic development in women is not proportionate to the cephalic development in infants. This perhaps explains the conclusion reached by Bluhm (1912), that the relative number of therapeutically induced premature births is increasing. That labor in case of male children more often demands artificial aid from the obstetrician than in case of females is shown by Prinzing, according to whom 6.18 per cent of male births in Wiirttemberg called for operative measures, as compared with 4.67 per cent of the female births. This, however, is not due alone to the greater size of the male infant. Von Winckel found that in 566 new-born infants of over 4,000 grams weight operative aid was necessary in only 3 per cent more cases than in births of lighter babies. Furthermore, the more difficult labor of the larger male child can not in itself be held responsible for the high sex-ratio of still-born infants, inasmuch as, according to Treichler (1895), 29.6 per cent, and, according to Prinzing (1907), 32.6 per cent, of all still-births are premature, and in the sex ratio of these size plays but little part. According to Ladame (1904), in Switzerland the number dying during labor constituted only 36.4 per cent of the total still-births. Finally, Von Winckel found that the death-rate among 1,000 new-born of over 4,000 grams weight was only 4.17 per cent.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Sex-ratio has frequently been studied in relation to the pelvic diameters of the mother. The results are somewhat conflicting. Hoffmann (1887), Dohrn (1888), and Orschansky (1894) may be mentioned, according to whom the sexratio in children of mothers with narrow pelves is low. In contrast to this, Linden (1884) states it to be 133 in 360 births in which the mothers had narrow pelves. In case the size of the pelvis really has an influence, this can be exerted only upon the secondary sex-ratio in the way of elimination. In the same manner it seems evident that many of the factors which apparently affect the sex-ratio do not influence it at the time of conception; that is to say, they do not have any sexdetermining effect, but by their influence upon intrauterine mortality they change only the sex-ratio of the living-born. The well-known fact that the secondary sex-ratio among Jews is relatively high is explained by Diising on the ground of incest, blood marriages being of frequent occurrence in that race. Schultze (1903), on the other hand, concluded that inbreeding has no effect upon sex determination and the same conclusion was reached by King (1918). Busing, in his conclusions, failed to make a distinction between the sex-ratio at birth and that at conception; the latter is probably not different in Jews from what it is in other white races, but changes less by reason of the relatively fewer abortions and still-births among Jews, resulting in a higher secondary sex-ratio. The relative infrequency of abortions among Jews has been shown, for instance, by Auerbach. One finds frequently the assumption that the negro produces fewer sons than other races another conclusion drawn from statistics of the new-born alone. Nichols pointed out that in the Bistrict of Columbia still-births and abortions among the colored population amount to 13.8 per cent of the living-born, whereas in the white it is only 6.5 per cent. This difference is responsible for the different secondary sex-ratios of the two races (103.1 in negroes and 106.2 in whites). Punnett (1903) and others have shown that the births among classes of lower social status present a lower sex-ratio than those of the rich. The explanation lies again in the fact that the greater frequency of abortions among women of the working classes, who can spare themselves less during pregnancy and in whom pregnancies occur in more rapid succession, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1 </del>results in a corresponding reduction in the sex-ratio, which probably was originally equal in the two classes. In addition, this greater reduction of the primary sex-ratio in the poorer classes is due to their higher percentage of stillbirths. According to Conrad in Halle, among laborers it was 5 per cent, while among the upper classes it was only 2.1 per cent; and according to Verrijn Stuart (1901), in Holland, among the poor, it was 3.16 per cent and among the rich 2.5 per cent of all births.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Sex-ratio has frequently been studied in relation to the pelvic diameters of the mother. The results are somewhat conflicting. Hoffmann (1887), Dohrn (1888), and Orschansky (1894) may be mentioned, according to whom the sexratio in children of mothers with narrow pelves is low. In contrast to this, Linden (1884) states it to be 133 in 360 births in which the mothers had narrow pelves. In case the size of the pelvis really has an influence, this can be exerted only upon the secondary sex-ratio in the way of elimination. In the same manner it seems evident that many of the factors which apparently affect the sex-ratio do not influence it at the time of conception; that is to say, they do not have any sexdetermining effect, but by their influence upon intrauterine mortality they change only the sex-ratio of the living-born. The well-known fact that the secondary sex-ratio among Jews is relatively high is explained by Diising on the ground of incest, blood marriages being of frequent occurrence in that race. Schultze (1903), on the other hand, concluded that inbreeding has no effect upon sex determination and the same conclusion was reached by King (1918). Busing, in his conclusions, failed to make a distinction between the sex-ratio at birth and that at conception; the latter is probably not different in Jews from what it is in other white races, but changes less by reason of the relatively fewer abortions and still-births among Jews, resulting in a higher secondary sex-ratio. The relative infrequency of abortions among Jews has been shown, for instance, by Auerbach. One finds frequently the assumption that the negro produces fewer sons than other races another conclusion drawn from statistics of the new-born alone. Nichols pointed out that in the Bistrict of Columbia still-births and abortions among the colored population amount to 13.8 per cent of the living-born, whereas in the white it is only 6.5 per cent. This difference is responsible for the different secondary sex-ratios of the two races (103.1 in negroes and 106.2 in whites). Punnett (1903) and others have shown that the births among classes of lower social status present a lower sex-ratio than those of the rich. The explanation lies again in the fact that the greater frequency of abortions among women of the working classes, who can spare themselves less during pregnancy and in whom pregnancies occur in more rapid succession,<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref>According to Diising (1884), the longer the intervals between births the higher is the sex-ratio.</ref> </ins>results in a corresponding reduction in the sex-ratio, which probably was originally equal in the two classes. In addition, this greater reduction of the primary sex-ratio in the poorer classes is due to their higher percentage of stillbirths. According to Conrad in Halle, among laborers it was 5 per cent, while among the upper classes it was only 2.1 per cent; and according to Verrijn Stuart (1901), in Holland, among the poor, it was 3.16 per cent and among the rich 2.5 per cent of all births.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A further example illustrating how the primary sex-ratio was erroneously thought to be influenced is shown in its difference in legitimate and illegitimate children. Heape (1909) states that the sex-ratio of legitimate births among the white population of Cuba is 109.0, still-births included; that of the illegitimate only 105.95. There is even a greater difference among negroes, the sex-ratio being 97.91 for illegitimate children and 107.73 for legitimate ones. Heape immediately draws the conclusion that illegitimate unions result more often in the conception of females than do legitimate ones. According to Busing, the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Prussia, between the years 1875 and 1887, was 106.37; that of illegitimate only 105.54. The still-births in legitimate unions amounted to 3.91 per cent, in illegitimate ones to 5.32 per cent. A corresponding difference was demonstrated by Bertillon (1896) in the frequency of legitimate and illegitimate abortions. The greater mortality of illegitimate fetuses reduced the sex-ratio to a greater degree. The rule that the sex-ratio is greater in legitimate than in illegitimate births is not, however, without exceptions. Srdinko (1907) found that the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Austria was lower than that of the illegitimate, and explains this by the fact that the illegitimate are for the most part Jewish, in which race abortions are less frequent. Further exceptions are reported by Nichols in the case of England and Scotland. According to the last-mentioned author, there is an especially high sex-ratio in legitimate births as compared with illegitimate ones in Rhode Island (104.7 to 98.8), Portugal (107.1 to 100.5), and Greece (114.0 to 96.9). He, too, found a greater frequency of still-births and abortions in illegitimate pregnancies. Obviously, in such cases there is more concealment and consequently still less complete statistics are available than in the case of legitimate pregnancies ending in abortion.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A further example illustrating how the primary sex-ratio was erroneously thought to be influenced is shown in its difference in legitimate and illegitimate children. Heape (1909) states that the sex-ratio of legitimate births among the white population of Cuba is 109.0, still-births included; that of the illegitimate only 105.95. There is even a greater difference among negroes, the sex-ratio being 97.91 for illegitimate children and 107.73 for legitimate ones. Heape immediately draws the conclusion that illegitimate unions result more often in the conception of females than do legitimate ones. According to Busing, the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Prussia, between the years 1875 and 1887, was 106.37; that of illegitimate only 105.54. The still-births in legitimate unions amounted to 3.91 per cent, in illegitimate ones to 5.32 per cent. A corresponding difference was demonstrated by Bertillon (1896) in the frequency of legitimate and illegitimate abortions. The greater mortality of illegitimate fetuses reduced the sex-ratio to a greater degree. The rule that the sex-ratio is greater in legitimate than in illegitimate births is not, however, without exceptions. Srdinko (1907) found that the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Austria was lower than that of the illegitimate, and explains this by the fact that the illegitimate are for the most part Jewish, in which race abortions are less frequent. Further exceptions are reported by Nichols in the case of England and Scotland. According to the last-mentioned author, there is an especially high sex-ratio in legitimate births as compared with illegitimate ones in Rhode Island (104.7 to 98.8), Portugal (107.1 to 100.5), and Greece (114.0 to 96.9). He, too, found a greater frequency of still-births and abortions in illegitimate pregnancies. Obviously, in such cases there is more concealment and consequently still less complete statistics are available than in the case of legitimate pregnancies ending in abortion.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1 According to Diising (1884), the longer the intervals between births the higher is the sex-ratio.</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
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</table>Z8600021https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Book_-_Contributions_to_Embryology_Carnegie_Institution_No.56-6&diff=109857&oldid=prevZ8600021: /* Changes in the Secondary Sex-Ratio */2012-11-22T01:10:23Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Changes in the Secondary Sex-Ratio</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 12:10, 22 November 2012</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The primary sex-ratio, as shown above, becomes transformed by an unequal intrauterine mortality of the two sexes into a different secondary ratio, and it is obvious, from a mathematical consideration, that the greater the proportion of abortions and still-births the lower will be the sex-ratio of living-born. Attempts have been made by a number of authors to explain the great mortality of males during certain periods of prenatal life. Carvallo simply says "les garcons sont plus fragiles"; Auerbach, also, considers the male fetus less resistant. Grassl (1912) gives as an explanation the supposition of a difference in the viability of the germ plasma. Jendrassik speaks of hereditary reduction of vitality among the excess of males. Ewart (1918) suggested that "it is possible here, of course, we have no data that the female conception may graft itself on the lining membrane of the uterus more easily than the male." Rauber explains the greater mortality of males by the greater demands of the larger fetuses upon the mother, the latter not always being able to meet them; the production of a female does not require as much from the mother. Lillie (1917) offers the suggestion that the greater mortality among male fetuses is a result of disturbance of the equilibrium that protects the male from the sex hormones of the mother. These are all more or less plausible hypotheses lacking in proofs. As to any real understanding of the unquestionably higher mortality of male fetuses we are still at a loss; attention may be called, however, to the fact that this sexual difference in vitality and power of resistance against disease is not restricted to the period of intrauterine life, but is found also in the first few years of postnatal life, at which time occupation, child-bearing, and other factors can not be held responsible for the difference between the male and female death-rate.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The primary sex-ratio, as shown above, becomes transformed by an unequal intrauterine mortality of the two sexes into a different secondary ratio, and it is obvious, from a mathematical consideration, that the greater the proportion of abortions and still-births the lower will be the sex-ratio of living-born. Attempts have been made by a number of authors to explain the great mortality of males during certain periods of prenatal life. Carvallo simply says "les garcons sont plus fragiles"; Auerbach, also, considers the male fetus less resistant. Grassl (1912) gives as an explanation the supposition of a difference in the viability of the germ plasma. Jendrassik speaks of hereditary reduction of vitality among the excess of males. Ewart (1918) suggested that "it is possible here, of course, we have no data that the female conception may graft itself on the lining membrane of the uterus more easily than the male." Rauber explains the greater mortality of males by the greater demands of the larger fetuses upon the mother, the latter not always being able to meet them; the production of a female does not require as much from the mother. Lillie (1917) offers the suggestion that the greater mortality among male fetuses is a result of disturbance of the equilibrium that protects the male from the sex hormones of the mother. These are all more or less plausible hypotheses lacking in proofs. As to any real understanding of the unquestionably higher mortality of male fetuses we are still at a loss; attention may be called, however, to the fact that this sexual difference in vitality and power of resistance against disease is not restricted to the period of intrauterine life, but is found also in the first few years of postnatal life, at which time occupation, child-bearing, and other factors can not be held responsible for the difference between the male and female death-rate.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The excess of male still-births is ascribed by most authors to the more difficult labor attendant upon the greater size of the male, 1 especially the circumference of the head. Button (1910) is of the opinion that at the time of birth the bones of the male skull are, as a rule, more firmly ossified than those of the female. He states also that with the advance of civilization the pelvic development in women is not proportionate to the cephalic development in infants. This perhaps explains the conclusion reached by Bluhm (1912), that the relative number of therapeutically induced premature births is increasing. That labor in case of male children more often demands artificial aid from the obstetrician than in case of females is shown by Prinzing, according to whom 6.18 per cent of male births in Wiirttemberg called for operative measures, as compared with 4.67 per cent of the female births. This, however, is not due alone to the greater size of the male infant. Von Winckel found that in 566 new-born infants of over 4,000 grams weight operative aid was necessary in only 3 per cent more cases than in births of lighter babies. Furthermore, the more difficult labor of the larger male child can not in itself be held responsible for the high sex-ratio of still-born infants, inasmuch as, according to Treichler (1895), 29.6 per cent, and, according to Prinzing (1907), 32.6 per cent, of all still-births are premature, and in the sex ratio of these size plays but little part. According to Ladame (1904), in Switzerland the number dying during labor constituted only 36.4 per cent of the total still-births. Finally, Von Winckel found that the death-rate among 1,000 new-born of over 4,000 grams weight was only 4.17 per cent.</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sex</del>-<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">ratio has frequently been studied in relation </del>to the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">pelvic diameters </del>of the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">mother</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The results are somewhat conflicting</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Hoffmann </del>(<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1887</del>), <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Dohrn (1888)</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">and Orschansky </del>(<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1894</del>) <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">may be mentioned</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">according to whom </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">sexratio </del>in children of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">mothers with narrow pelves </del>is <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">low. In contrast to this</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Linden (1884) states it </del>to <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">be 133 in 360 </del>births in <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">which </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">mothers had narrow pelves</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In case </del>the size of the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">pelvis really has an influence</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">this </del>can be <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">exerted only upon </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">secondary </del>sex-ratio in the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">way </del>of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">elimination</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">same manner it seems evident that many </del>of the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">factors which apparently affect </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">sex</del>-<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">ratio do not</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The excess of male still</ins>-<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">births is ascribed by most authors </ins>to the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">more difficult labor attendant upon the greater size </ins>of the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">male,<ref>Von Winckel found among 1,000 new-born, of over 4,000 grams weight and 52 cm. length, a sex-ratio of 226</ins>.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ref> especially the circumference of the head</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Button </ins>(<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1910</ins>) <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">is of the opinion that at the time of birth the bones of the male skull are</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">as a rule</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">more firmly ossified than those of the female. He states also that with the advance of civilization the pelvic development in women is not proportionate to the cephalic development in infants. This perhaps explains the conclusion reached by Bluhm </ins>(<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1912</ins>), <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">that </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">relative number of therapeutically induced premature births is increasing. That labor </ins>in <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">case of male </ins>children <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">more often demands artificial aid from the obstetrician than in case </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">females </ins>is <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">shown by Prinzing</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">according </ins>to <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">whom 6.18 per cent of male </ins>births in <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Wiirttemberg called for operative measures, as compared with 4.67 per cent of </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">female births</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This, however, is not due alone to </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">greater </ins>size of the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">male infant. Von Winckel found that in 566 new-born infants of over 4,000 grams weight operative aid was necessary in only 3 per cent more cases than in births of lighter babies. Furthermore</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the more difficult labor of the larger male child </ins>can <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">not in itself </ins>be <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">held responsible for </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">high </ins>sex-ratio <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">of still-born infants, inasmuch as, according to Treichler (1895), 29.6 per cent, and, according to Prinzing (1907), 32.6 per cent, of all still-births are premature, and </ins>in the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">sex ratio </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">these size plays but little part</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">According to Ladame (1904), in Switzerland </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">number dying during labor constituted only 36.4 per cent </ins>of the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">total still-births. Finally, Von Winckel found that </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">death-rate among 1,000 new</ins>-<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">born of over 4,000 grams weight was only 4.17 per cent.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1 Von Winckel found among 1</del>,<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">000 new-born</del>, of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">over 4</del>,<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">000 grams weight and 52 cm</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">length</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">a </del>sex-ratio of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">226</del>.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Sex-ratio has frequently been studied in relation to the pelvic diameters of the mother. The results are somewhat conflicting. Hoffmann (1887), Dohrn (1888)</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">and Orschansky (1894) may be mentioned</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">according to whom the sexratio in children </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">mothers with narrow pelves is low. In contrast to this</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Linden (1884) states it to be 133 in 360 births in which the mothers had narrow pelves</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In case the size of the pelvis really has an influence</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">this can be exerted only upon the secondary </ins>sex-ratio <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">in the way </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">elimination</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In the same manner it seems evident that many of the factors which apparently affect the sex-ratio do not </ins>influence it at the time of conception; that is to say, they do not have any sexdetermining effect, but by their influence upon intrauterine mortality they change only the sex-ratio of the living-born. The well-known fact that the secondary sex-ratio among Jews is relatively high is explained by Diising on the ground of incest, blood marriages being of frequent occurrence in that race. Schultze (1903), on the other hand, concluded that inbreeding has no effect upon sex determination and the same conclusion was reached by King (1918). Busing, in his conclusions, failed to make a distinction between the sex-ratio at birth and that at conception; the latter is probably not different in Jews from what it is in other white races, but changes less by reason of the relatively fewer abortions and still-births among Jews, resulting in a higher secondary sex-ratio. The relative infrequency of abortions among Jews has been shown, for instance, by Auerbach. One finds frequently the assumption that the negro produces fewer sons than other races another conclusion drawn from statistics of the new-born alone. Nichols pointed out that in the Bistrict of Columbia still-births and abortions among the colored population amount to 13.8 per cent of the living-born, whereas in the white it is only 6.5 per cent. This difference is responsible for the different secondary sex-ratios of the two races (103.1 in negroes and 106.2 in whites). Punnett (1903) and others have shown that the births among classes of lower social status present a lower sex-ratio than those of the rich. The explanation lies again in the fact that the greater frequency of abortions among women of the working classes, who can spare themselves less during pregnancy and in whom pregnancies occur in more rapid succession, 1 results in a corresponding reduction in the sex-ratio, which probably was originally equal in the two classes. In addition, this greater reduction of the primary sex-ratio in the poorer classes is due to their higher percentage of stillbirths. According to Conrad in Halle, among laborers it was 5 per cent, while among the upper classes it was only 2.1 per cent; and according to Verrijn Stuart (1901), in Holland, among the poor, it was 3.16 per cent and among the rich 2.5 per cent of all births.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>influence it at the time of conception; that is to say, they do not have any sexdetermining effect, but by their influence upon intrauterine mortality they change only the sex-ratio of the living-born. The well-known fact that the secondary sex-ratio among Jews is relatively high is explained by Diising on the ground of incest, blood marriages being of frequent occurrence in that race. Schultze (1903), on the other hand, concluded that inbreeding has no effect upon sex determination and the same conclusion was reached by King (1918). Busing, in his conclusions, failed to make a distinction between the sex-ratio at birth and that at conception; the latter is probably not different in Jews from what it is in other white races, but changes less by reason of the relatively fewer abortions and still-births among Jews, resulting in a higher secondary sex-ratio. The relative infrequency of abortions among Jews has been shown, for instance, by Auerbach. One finds frequently the assumption that the negro produces fewer sons than other races another conclusion drawn from statistics of the new-born alone. Nichols pointed out that in the Bistrict of Columbia still-births and abortions among the colored population amount to 13.8 per cent of the living-born, whereas in the white it is only 6.5 per cent. This difference is responsible for the different secondary sex-ratios of the two races (103.1 in negroes and 106.2 in whites). Punnett (1903) and others have shown that the births among classes of lower social status present a lower sex-ratio than those of the rich. The explanation lies again in the fact that the greater frequency of abortions among women of the working classes, who can spare themselves less during pregnancy and in whom pregnancies occur in more rapid succession, 1 results in a corresponding reduction in the sex-ratio, which probably was originally equal in the two classes. In addition, this greater reduction of the primary sex-ratio in the poorer classes is due to their higher percentage of stillbirths. According to Conrad in Halle, among laborers it was 5 per cent, while among the upper classes it was only 2.1 per cent; and according to Verrijn Stuart (1901), in Holland, among the poor, it was 3.16 per cent and among the rich 2.5 per cent of all births.</div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A further example illustrating how the primary sex-ratio was erroneously thought to be influenced is shown in its difference in legitimate and illegitimate children. Heape (1909) states that the sex-ratio of legitimate births among the white population of Cuba is 109.0, still-births included; that of the illegitimate only 105.95. There is even a greater difference among negroes, the sex-ratio being 97.91 for illegitimate children and 107.73 for legitimate ones. Heape immediately draws the conclusion that illegitimate unions result more often in the conception of females than do legitimate ones. According to Busing, the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Prussia, between the years 1875 and 1887, was 106.37; that of illegitimate only 105.54. The still-births in legitimate unions amounted to 3.91 per cent, in illegitimate ones to 5.32 per cent. A corresponding difference was demonstrated by Bertillon (1896) in the frequency of legitimate and illegitimate abortions. The greater mortality of illegitimate fetuses reduced the sex-ratio to a greater degree. The rule that the sex-ratio is greater in legitimate than in illegitimate births is not, however, without exceptions. Srdinko (1907) found that the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Austria was lower than that of the illegitimate, and explains this by the fact that the illegitimate are for the most part Jewish, in which race abortions are less frequent. Further exceptions are reported by Nichols in the case of England and Scotland. According to the last-mentioned author, there is an especially high sex-ratio in legitimate births as compared with illegitimate ones in Rhode Island (104.7 to 98.8), Portugal (107.1 to 100.5), and Greece (114.0 to 96.9). He, too, found a greater frequency of still-births and abortions in illegitimate pregnancies. Obviously, in such cases there is more concealment and consequently still less complete statistics are available than in the case of legitimate pregnancies ending in abortion.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A further example illustrating how the primary sex-ratio was erroneously thought to be influenced is shown in its difference in legitimate and illegitimate children. Heape (1909) states that the sex-ratio of legitimate births among the white population of Cuba is 109.0, still-births included; that of the illegitimate only 105.95. There is even a greater difference among negroes, the sex-ratio being 97.91 for illegitimate children and 107.73 for legitimate ones. Heape immediately draws the conclusion that illegitimate unions result more often in the conception of females than do legitimate ones. According to Busing, the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Prussia, between the years 1875 and 1887, was 106.37; that of illegitimate only 105.54. The still-births in legitimate unions amounted to 3.91 per cent, in illegitimate ones to 5.32 per cent. A corresponding difference was demonstrated by Bertillon (1896) in the frequency of legitimate and illegitimate abortions. The greater mortality of illegitimate fetuses reduced the sex-ratio to a greater degree. The rule that the sex-ratio is greater in legitimate than in illegitimate births is not, however, without exceptions. Srdinko (1907) found that the sex-ratio of legitimate births in Austria was lower than that of the illegitimate, and explains this by the fact that the illegitimate are for the most part Jewish, in which race abortions are less frequent. Further exceptions are reported by Nichols in the case of England and Scotland. According to the last-mentioned author, there is an especially high sex-ratio in legitimate births as compared with illegitimate ones in Rhode Island (104.7 to 98.8), Portugal (107.1 to 100.5), and Greece (114.0 to 96.9). He, too, found a greater frequency of still-births and abortions in illegitimate pregnancies. Obviously, in such cases there is more concealment and consequently still less complete statistics are available than in the case of legitimate pregnancies ending in abortion.</div></td></tr>
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