Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection
Introduction
The variety of bacterial infections that can occur during pregnancy is as variable as the potential developmental effects, from virtually insignificant to major developmental, abortive or fatal in outcome. Some bacteria are common and are part of the normal genital tract flora (Lactobacillus sp), while other bacterial infections are less common or even rare and initially infect/transmit by air or fluids through the different epithelia (genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract).
Note that some infections may have historic or alternative common names, for example Pertussis "whooping cough".
Some Recent Findings
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Neisseria Gonorrhea
The gram-negative bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae causes the disease Gonorrhea which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Maternal infection increases the risk of premature birth and ophthalmia neonatorum (infantile purulent conjunctivitis).
Nowicki S, Selvarangan R, Anderson G. Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect Immun. 1999 Sep;67(9):4974-6. "...This study provides the first experimental model that may mimic the transmission of gonococcal infection from mother to the fetus during pregnancy." |
Links: CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Gonorrhea | NCBI Bookshelf Medical Microbiology - Neisseria gonorrhoeae |
Listeria Monocytogenes
The bacterium Listeria monocytogenes is the pathogenic form of the 7 listeria species. Infection is generally through ingestion of organisms in contaminated food. Maternal symptoms may be mild, fetal effects can range from insignificant through to major abnormalities. Maternal treatment relates to potential developmental effects. Pregnancy greatly increases the risk of listeriosis, with pregnant women about 60% of all cases (male and female) aged 10 to 40 years. Similar effects are seem in other mammalian species.[5] See also the listeriosis review article[6] and the Guinea pig placenta listeria model[7]
Infection
- ingestion of contaminated food
- colonization of the intestine
- intestinal translocation
- replication in the liver and spleen
- either the resolution of infection or spread to other organs resulting in a systemic infection
Lyme Disease
The bacterium spirochete Borrelia Burgdorferi causes Lyme disease. Infection can be through the blood by tick bite.
- Links: CDC (USA) - Lyme Disease
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasmas come in many different varieties, occur as part of the normal human flora, and lack a bacterial cell wall. Infection is generally through the female genital tract.
- Links: NCBI Bookshelf Medical Microbiology - Mycoplasma | CDC Mycoplasmas: Sophisticated, Reemerging, and Burdened by Their Notoriety
Syphilis
Links: CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Syphilis | CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - STD and Pregnancy NCBI Bookshelf Medical Microbiology - Syphilis Search |
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Australian Recommendations
BCG vaccination is not recommended for general use in the Australian population.
BCG is recommended for:
- Aboriginal neonates in areas of high incidence of TB (e.g. Northern Territory, Far North Queensland, northern areas of Western Australia and South Australia)
- neonates and children 5 years and under who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
- neonates born to parents with leprosy or a family history of leprosy
In addition to these recommendations BCG may be considered in the following:
- Children over 5 years who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
- Health care workers (HCWs) who may be at high risk of exposure to drug resistant cases.
(Text Source: Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 30 Number 1, March 2006 - The BCG vaccine: information and recommendations for use in Australia)
Links: CDC (USA) - Tuberculosis | CDC (USA) - Tuberculosis Vaccine | NHMRC (Australia) - BCG vaccine | WHO - tuberculosis | WHO Report 2007 - Global tuberculosis control - epidemiology, strategy, financing)
Bacterial Meningitis
The bacterium Neisseria meningitidis or Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) can cause the disease bacterial meningitis.
Hib immunization for infants and children are generally recommended.
Recently a universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus has been developed (See [#Recent Some Recent Findings 2006] and [#11734711 meningococcal vaccine 2001])
Links: CDC (USA) - Meningococcal Disease | Medline Plus - Meningitis |
Pertussis
The bacterium Bordetella pertussis can cause the disease Pertussis (Whooping Cough) can lead to infant mortality. (More? [pertussis.htm Pertussis])
May 2005 - First Combination Vaccine Approved to Help Protect Adolescents Against Whooping Cough USA Food and Drug Administration has approved booster immunization against pertussis (whooping cough) in combination with tetanus and diphtheria for adolescents. Pertussis is a highly contagious bacterial disease. (FDA 03 May 2005)
Links: CDC (USA) - Pertussis | Medline Plus - Pertussis | Pertussis Vaccination: Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) |
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus a gram-positive bacterium commonly present (25% of healthy people and animals) on the skin and nasal surfaces, no vaccines are available. Strains of this bacteria can produce toxins related to food poisoning and be resistant to various antibiotics.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics including Methicillin, there are other strains which are resistant to specific antibiotics (vancomycin).
About 2% of Staphylococcus aureus produce a toxin Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) which can be fatal in neonates.
- Links: CDC (USA) - Staphylococcus | CDC (USA) - emerging infectious diseases | Medline Plus - Staph aureus food poisoning | Medical Microbiology - Staphylococcus
Bacterial Vaginosis
Bacterial vaginosis imbalance of the normal vaginal flora (more anaerobic bacteria and less normal gram-positive bacteria Lactobacillus sp). Maternal infection is associated with a variety of pregnancy abnormalities including preterm birth and poor perinatal outcome.[8]
Gram Stain
Bacterial staining procedure named after Hans Christian Gram (1853 - 1938). Generally divides bacteria into either:
Gram-positive bacteria purple crystal violet stain is trapped by layer of peptidoglycan (forms outer layer of the cell).
Gram-negative bacteria outer membrane prevents stain from reaching peptidoglycan layer in the periplasm, outer membrane then permeabilized and pink safranin counterstain is trapped by peptidoglycan layer.
Links: Medical Microbiology | American Society for Microbiology
Australian NHMRC Recommendations
The Australian NHMRC (1988) recommends neonates be assessed for follow-up care under the following conditions.
- Birthweight less than 1500g or gestational age less than 32 weeks
- Small-for-gestational-age neonates
- Perinatal asphyxia
- Apgar score less than 3 at 5 minutes
- clinical evidence of neurological dysfunction
- delay in onset of spontaneous respiration for more than 5 minutes and requiring mechanical ventilation
- Clinical evidence of central nervous system abnormalities ie., seizures, hypotonia
- Hyperbilirubinaemia of greater than 350umol/l in full term neonates
- Genetic, dysmorphic or metabolic disorders or a family history of serious genetic disorder
- Perinatal or serious neonatal infection including children of mothers who are HIV positive
- Psychosocial problems eg., infants of drug-addicted or alcoholic mothers.
WWW Links
CDC (USA)
Public Health Training Network Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (viewable Webcasts requires Media Player) |
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Recommendations
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (UK)
Infection and Pregnancy - study group recommendations (Jun 2001)
References
- ↑ <pubmed>19250368</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>19250368</pubmed>| Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of Canada 2007;29:35-44)." (text from BMJ 2007;334(7587):224
- ↑ <pubmed>16825336</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>16458647</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>20885996</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>12648833</pubmed>| PLoS One
- ↑ <pubmed>15871123</pubmed>
- ↑ <pubmed>16460868</pubmed>
Reviews
Donders GG. Management of genital infections in pregnant women. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006 Feb;19(1):55-61.
Goodnight WH, Soper DE. Pneumonia in pregnancy. Crit Care Med. 2005 Oct;33(10 Suppl):S390-7.
Boggess KA. Pathophysiology of preterm birth: emerging concepts of maternal infection. Clin Perinatol. 2005 Sep;32(3):561-9.
Hirsch E, Wang H. The molecular pathophysiology of bacterially induced preterm labor: insights from the murine model. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2005 Apr;12(3):145-55.
Berman SM. Maternal syphilis: pathophysiology and treatment. Bull World Health Organ. 2004 Jun;82(6):433-8.
Doganay M. Listeriosis: clinical presentation. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2003 Apr 1;35(3):173-5.
Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, Andrews WW. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 18;342(20):1500-7.
Ross SM. Sexually transmitted diseases in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1982 Dec;9(3):565-92.
Articles
Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, Morselli-Labate AM, Lazzarotto T, Pilu G, Rizzo N. Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006 Sep-Oct;128(1-2):40-5. Epub 2006 Feb 3.
Giuliani MM, Adu-Bobie J, Comanducci M, Arico B, Savino S, Santini L, Brunelli B, Bambini S, Biolchi A, Capecchi B, Cartocci E, Ciucchi L, Di Marcello F, Ferlicca F, Galli B, Luzzi E, Masignani V, Serruto D, Veggi D, Contorni M, Morandi M, Bartalesi A, Cinotti V, Mannucci D, Titta F, Ovidi E, Welsch JA, Granoff D, Rappuoli R, Pizza M. A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jul 6; [Epub ahead of print]
Colombo DF, Lew JL, Pedersen CA, Johnson JR, Fan-Havard P. Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;194(2):466-70.
Bakardjiev AI, Stacy BA, Portnoy DA. Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in the guinea pig placenta and role of cell-to-cell spread in fetal infection. J Infect Dis. 2005 Jun 1;191(11):1889-97.
Goffinet F, Maillard F, Mihoubi N, Kayem G, Papiernik E, Cabrol D, Paul G. Bacterial vaginosis: prevalence and predictive value for premature delivery and neonatal infection in women with preterm labour and intact membranes. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2003 Jun 10;108(2):146-51.
Morley SL, Cole MJ, Ison CA, Camaraza MA, Sotolongo F, Anwar N, Cuevas I, Carbonero M, Campa HC, Sierra G, Levin M. Immunogenicity of a serogroup B meningococcal vaccine against multiple Neisseria meningitidis strains in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001 Nov;20(11):1054-61.
Nowicki S, Selvarangan R, Anderson G. Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect Immun. 1999 Sep;67(9):4974-6.
Search Pubmed
Search Jan2006 "bacterial infection" 547,445 reference articles of which 45,020 were reviews.
Search PubMed: term = bacterial infection
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Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, April 19) Embryology Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Abnormal_Development_-_Bacterial_Infection
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