Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection: Difference between revisions

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{{Header}}
 
{{Educational Warning}}
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
The variety of bacterial infections that can occur during pregnancy is as variable as the potential developmental effects, from virtually insignificant to major developmental, abortive or fatal in outcome. Some bacteria are common and are part of the normal genital tract flora (Lactobacillus sp), while other bacterial infections are less common or even rare and initially infect/transmit by air or fluids through the different epithelia (genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract).
[[Image:Treponema-pallidum.jpg|thumb|The spirochete bacteria ''treponema pallidum'', the cause of syphillis.]]
The variety of {{bacterial infection}}s that can occur during pregnancy is as variable as the potential developmental effects, from virtually insignificant to major developmental, abortive or fatal in outcome. Some bacteria are common and are part of the normal genital tract flora (Lactobacillus sp), while other bacterial infections are less common or even rare and initially infect/transmit by air or fluids through the different epithelia (genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract).


Note that some infections may have historic or alternative common names, for example Pertussis "whooping cough".
Note that some infections may have historic or alternative common names, for example Pertussis "whooping cough".


:{{Template:Environmental}}


Maternal uterine tubal damage by bacterial infection (''Chlamydia trachomatis'') can also lead to [[Abnormal Development -  Ectopic Implantation|Ectopic Implantation]].
Many common pregnancy related bacterial infections, such as maternal urinary tract infection (UTI), are safely treated with [[#Antibiotics|antibiotics]] that can also cross the placenta. Most antibiotics have good data available on their teratogenic and toxic risks, while some antibiotics have limited data available.{{#pmid:16648419|PMID16648419}} This should also be considered postnatally, with transfer from mother to infant through lactation and breast milk. Note that pregnant and breastfeeding women are generally excluded from drug clinical trials and most data comes from animal studies.{{#pmid:28925019|PMID28925019}}
[[File:NSW-pertussis-notification-graph 2012-16.jpg|thumb|alt=NSW Pertussis Notification Graph (2012-16)|NSW Pertussis Notification Graph (2012-16)]]
{{Bacterial Links}}
{{Environmental}}
==Some Recent Findings==
==Some Recent Findings==
{|
|-bgcolor="F5FAFF"
|
* '''The Safety of Influenza and Pertussis Vaccination in Pregnancy in a Cohort of Australian Mother-Infant Pairs, 2012-2015: The FluMum Study'''{{#pmid:30475988|PMID30475988}} "Inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and pertussis vaccination are recommended in pregnancy. Limited safety data exist for women who received IIV vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy or received both vaccines in pregnancy. We assessed adverse birth outcomes between vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnancies. METHODS: Among prospectively enrolled Australian "FluMum" participants (2012-2015), primary exposure was receipt and timing of IIV during pregnancy. Primary outcomes included preterm birth, low birthweight at term (LBWT), and small for gestational age (SGA). We compared birth outcomes for IIV in pregnancy with women unvaccinated in pregnancy using Cox proportional hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). ...No significant associations were found between maternal IIV or pertussis vaccination in pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, regardless of the trimester of pregnancy a vaccination was given compared to unvaccinated pregnancies."
* '''Lipopolysaccharide-induced maternal inflammation induces direct placental injury without alteration in placental blood flow and induces a secondary fetal intestinal injury that persists into adulthood'''{{#pmid:29369434|PMID29369434}} "Premature birth complicates 10%-12% of deliveries. Infection and inflammation are the most common etiologies and are associated with increased offspring morbidity and mortality. We hypothesize that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal inflammation causes direct placenta injury and subsequent injury to the fetal intestine. {{Mouse}} - Lipopolysaccharide causes a maternal inflammatory response that is mirrored in the placenta. Placental histology demonstrates structural changes; however, placental blood flow is preserved. LPS also induces an indirect intestinal injury in the offspring that lasts beyond the neonatal period."
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! More recent papers &nbsp;
|-
| [[File:Mark_Hill.jpg|90px|left]] {{Most_Recent_Refs}}
Search term: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Bacterial+Teratogen ''Bacteria Teratogen'']
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! Older papers &nbsp;
|-
| {{Older papers}}
* '''Pertussis - There has been a recent significant increase in the total number of pertussis (whooping cough) notifications in NSW, Australia.'''
* '''Tuberculosis (TB) during pregnancy'''{{#pmid:21749618|PMID21749618}} This BJOG paper describes a study which highlights lack of awareness about TB in pregnancy. The number of women who die from TB during pregnancy is increasing in the UK. TB has been classified as a priority infectious disease, and TB incidence in the UK is now higher than that in most western European countries. "All 229 of eligible UK hospitals participated (between August 2005 and August 2006), representing 100% coverage of women giving birth in the UK. During this period, a total of 33 women were diagnosed with TB during pregnancy. All of these women were non-white. Researchers found that TB in pregnancy in the UK appears to be exclusively limited to ethnic minority women and almost exclusively to those born outside the UK.The authors noted that screening for TB during pregnancy, while recommended, does not seem to be undertaken routinely. This may contribute to a delay in diagnosis."
* '''Antibiotics during pregnancy'''{{#pmid:19250368|PMID19250368}} "Macrolides or clindamycin during the second trimester of pregnancy to women at risk of preterm births can lower the risk, a new systematic review and meta-analysis by Canadian researchers indicates. But the study also found that giving metronidazole alone in the second trimester is linked with a greater risk of preterm birth in the high risk population. The study's authors, from the University of Montreal and Laval University, Quebec, say that delivery before 37 weeks' gestation complicates between 7% and 11% of all pregnancies, is the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality, and is responsible for high healthcare costs"
* '''A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus'''{{#pmid:16825336|PMID16825336}} "Meningitis and sepsis caused by serogroup B meningococcus are two severe diseases that still cause significant mortality. To date there is no universal vaccine that prevents these diseases. In this work, five antigens discovered by reverse vaccinology were expressed in a form suitable for large-scale manufacturing and formulated with adjuvants suitable for human use. The vaccine adjuvanted by aluminum hydroxide induced bactericidal antibodies in mice against 78% of a panel of 85 meningococcal strains representative of the global population diversity."
* '''Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus'''{{#pmid:16458647|PMID16458647}} "Bactericidal levels of ampicillin in the cord blood are rapidly achieved within 30 minutes of administration of ampicillin to the mother. The increase in the ratio of cord to maternal serum ampicillin levels is directly related to time, suggesting a decrease in the clearance of ampicillin in the newborns as compared to the mothers. The cord blood ampicillin concentration exceeds the maternal concentration and both continue to be above the minimal bactericidal concentrations at 5.6 hours after administration."
|}
== Neisseria Gonorrhea ==
{| class="prettytable"
| <center>[[Image:Neisseria-gonorrhoeae.jpg]] </center>
<center>Neisseria Gonorrhea, arrowed within a cell (diplococci) and extracellular (pleomorphic) (Image CDC) </center>
| The gram-negative bacterium ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae'' causes the disease Gonorrhea which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Maternal infection increases the risk of premature birth and ophthalmia neonatorum (infantile purulent conjunctivitis).
A recent paper has described in the rat mother to the fetus during pregnancy, suggesting this as a model for human transmission.{{#pmid:10456962|PMID10456962}}
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal Development - Gonorrhea]]
|}
== Listeria Monocytogenes ==
[[Image:Listeria-bacterium.jpg|thumb|Listeria monocytogenes bacteria (Image CDC)]]
The bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes'' is the pathogenic form of the 7 listeria species. Infection is generally through ingestion of organisms in contaminated food.  Maternal symptoms may be mild, fetal effects can range from insignificant through to major abnormalities. Maternal treatment relates to potential developmental effects. Pregnancy greatly increases the risk of listeriosis, with pregnant women about 60% of all cases (male and female) aged 10 to 40 years. Similar effects are seem in other mammalian species.{{#pmid:20885996|PMID20885996}} and the Guinea pig placenta listeria model{{#pmid:15871123|PMID15871123}} Generalized suppression of immunity during pregnancy is suggest to have a role in susceptibility, though recent results in a mouse model suggest that susceptibility can occur very early in a pregnancy and may relate to enteric carriage rate.{{#pmid:20885996|PMID20885996}}
===Infection===
# ingestion of contaminated food
# colonization of the intestine
# intestinal translocation
# replication in the liver and spleen
# either the resolution of infection or spread to other organs resulting in a systemic infection
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal Development - Listeria]] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=mmed.section.973 Medical Microbiology - Listeria]
== Lyme Disease ==
[[Image:Borrelia-burgdorferi.jpg|thumb|Borrelia burgdorferi, spirochete (or "corkscrew-shaped" bacteria) (Image CDC)]]
The bacterium spirochete ''Borrelia Burgdorferi'' causes Lyme disease. Infection can be through the blood by tick bite.
:'''Links:''' [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/lyme/index.htm CDC (USA) - Lyme Disease]
== Mycoplasma ==
[[Image:Mycoplasma-pneumoniae.jpg|thumb|Mycoplasma in respiratory epithelium ('''M''', mycoplasma; '''m''', microvillus; '''C''', cilia, EM Image CDC)]]
Mycoplasmas come in many different varieties, occur as part of the normal human flora, and lack a bacterial cell wall. Infection is generally through the female genital tract.
:'''Links:''' NCBI Bookshelf [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.2029 Medical Microbiology - Mycoplasma] | CDC [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no1/baseman.htm Mycoplasmas: Sophisticated, Reemerging, and Burdened by Their Notoriety]
== Syphilis ==
{| class="prettytable"
| <center>[[Image:Treponema-pallidum.jpg]] </center>
<center>Treponema pallidum (scanning EM, Image CDC) </center>
| The bacterium ''Treponema pallidum'' causes syphilis which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Infection can lead to congenital infection with abortion, prematurity, neonatal death or multiple system abnormalities.
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal Development -  Syphilis]] | [http://www.cdc.gov/std/STDFact-STDs&Pregnancy.htm CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - STD and Pregnancy]
|}
== Mycobacterium Tuberculosis ==
{| class="prettytable"
| [[Image:Mycobacterium-tuberculosis.jpg]]Mycobacterium Tuberculosis (scanning EM, Image CDC)
| [[File:Robert Koch.jpg|thumb|Robert Koch (1843 - 1910) Discoverer of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', the organism that causes tuberculosis and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.]]
The gram-positive bacterium ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' causes the disease Tuberculosis (TB) usually initially infecting the lungs. The infection can cross the placenta to infect the fetus infecting many different systems (liver, bones, kidneys, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, skin, lymph nodes).
More than two billion people, one third of the world's total population, are infected with TB bacilli, an airborne infectious disease that is preventable and curable.
The Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine was first used in 1921 as a vaccine for tuberculosis disease and also used in some countries to prevent childhood tuberculous meningitis and miliary disease.
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB2) is a highly drug-resistant strain subset of MDR-TB ([#MDR-Tuberculosis multidrug-resistant TB]) that have significantly worse outcomes, has now been reported in more than 50 countries. (WHO data)
'''Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis '''(MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs (isoniazid and rifampicin).
'''Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis''' (XDR-TB2) is defined as MDR-TB plus resistance to the most powerful second-line anti-TB drugs (any fluoroquinolone and any of the three injectable drugs: amikacin, capreomycin and kanamycin).
&nbsp;
| [[File:WHO Report 2007 - Global tuberculosis new cases 2007.jpg]]
|}
'''Australian Recommendations'''
BCG vaccination is not recommended for general use in the Australian population.
BCG is recommended for:
# Aboriginal neonates in areas of high incidence of TB (e.g. Northern Territory, Far North Queensland, northern areas of Western Australia and South Australia)
# neonates and children 5 years and under who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
# neonates born to parents with leprosy or a family history of leprosy
In addition to these recommendations BCG may be considered in the following:
# Children over 5 years who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
# Health care workers (HCWs) who may be at high risk of exposure to drug resistant cases.
(Text Source: Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 30 Number 1, March 2006 - The BCG vaccine: information and recommendations for use in Australia)
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal Development - Tuberculosis]]
==Melioidosis==
(Greek, ''melis'' = distemper of asses, ''oeidēs'', resemblance, and osis, a suffix indicating an abnormal condition or disease. The bacteria ''Burkholderia pseudomallei'' is normally found in soil surface layers and in muddy surface waters.
* 1912 - Alfred Whitmore, a British pathologist serving in Burma, and his assistant C. S. Krishnaswami first described melioidosis. The infection became known as Whitmore’s disease.
* 1925 - Ambrose T. Stanton and William Fletcher identified ''Burkholderia pseudomallei'' as the infection’s causative agent, renamed the infection melioidosis because of its clinical resemblance to glanders. Glanders is an infectious disease that is caused by another bacterium ''Burkholderia mallei''.
:'''Links:''' [http://access.health.qld.gov.au/hid/InfectionsandParasites/BacterialInfections/melioidosis_is.asp Queensland Health] | [http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/7/et-1707_article.htm CDC - Etymologia: Melioidosis]
== Bacterial Meningitis ==
[[Image:Neisseria-meningitidis2.jpg|thumb|Neisseria meningitidis (arrowed, Image CDC)]]
The bacterium ''Neisseria meningitidis'' or ''Haemophilus influenzae'' type B (Hib) can cause the disease bacterial meningitis.
Hib immunization for infants and children are generally recommended.
Recently a universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus has been developed (See  meningococcal vaccine 2001{{#pmid:11734711|PMID11734711}})
[[Image:Haemophilus-influenzae.jpg|thumb|Haemophilus influenzae (bright green immunofluorescence, Image CDC)]]
:'''Links:''' [http://www.cdc.gov/meningococcal/about/index.html CDC (USA) - Meningococcal Disease] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000680.htm Medline Plus - Meningitis] |
== Pertussis ==
The bacterium ''Bordetella pertussis'' can cause the disease Pertussis (Whooping Cough) can lead to infant mortality.
'''May 2005''' - [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01354.html First Combination Vaccine Approved to Help Protect Adolescents Against Whooping Cough] USA Food and Drug Administration has approved booster immunization against pertussis (whooping cough) in combination with tetanus and diphtheria for adolescents. Pertussis is a highly contagious bacterial disease. (FDA 03 May 2005)
'''Links: '''[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/pertussis_t.htm CDC (USA) - Pertussis] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001561.htm Medline Plus - Pertussis] | [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00048610.htm Pertussis Vaccination: Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)] |
==Salmonella==
Salmonellosis is the infection caused bacterial genus ''Salmonella'', these are mainly associated with foodborne transmission from contaminated animal–derived meat and dairy products. Though infection can also occur after handling pets, particularly reptiles like snakes, turtles and lizards.
:'''Links:''' [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/salmonellainfections.html MedlinePlus - Salmonella] | [http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/divisions/dfbmd/diseases/salmonellosis/ CDC - Salmonellosis]
== Staphylococcus aureus ==
[[Image:Staphylococcus-aureus.jpg|thumb|Staphylococcus aureus (scanning EM, Image CDC)]]
''Staphylococcus aureus'' a gram-positive bacterium commonly present (25% of healthy people and animals) on the skin and nasal surfaces, no vaccines are available. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia (SAB), commonly known as ‘golden staph’ and has risk factors including injectable drug use, haemodialysis, indwelling vascular catheters and immunosuppression.{{#pmid:16271058|PMID16271058}} Strains of this bacteria can produce toxins related to food poisoning and be resistant to various antibiotics.
Methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics including Methicillin, there are other strains which are resistant to specific antibiotics (vancomycin).
About 2% of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' produce a toxin Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) which can be fatal in neonates.
:'''Links:''' [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/submenus/sub_staphylococcus.htm CDC (USA) - Staphylococcus] | [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol11no10/05-0125.htm CDC (USA) - emerging infectious diseases] | [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000227.htm Medline Plus - Staph aureus food poisoning] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8448 Medical Microbiology - Staphylococcus]
==Cholera==
Cholera is an infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. The cholera bacterium is usually found in water or food contaminated by faeces and the incubation period ranges from less than one day to five days. The bacteria produces an enterotoxin that causes a  watery diarrhoea, leading to severe dehydration and death if treatment is not promptly given. Vomiting also occurs in most patients. Outbreaks are generally associated with poor sanitation and water supply. Recent outbreaks have been identified in Haiti and Mexico.
:'''Links:''' [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cholera.html Medline Plus] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8407 Medical Microbiology - Cholera] | [http://www.who.int/topics/cholera/en WHO - Cholera]
==Chlamydia==
===Chlamydia trachomatis===
[[File:Female_genital_tract_chlamydia_trachomatis_infection_02.jpg|thumb|Chlamydia trachomatis developmental cycle{{#pmid:15688042|PMID15688042}}
A genus of bacteria commonly as a sexually transmitted disease. ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' is a a gram-negative bacterium associated with uterine tube damage and infections are a risk factor for ectopic implantation. An infected mother can during childbirth also pass chlamydia to the neonate.
[[File:Female genital tract chlamydia trachomatis infection 01.jpg|300px]]
Female genital tract chlamydia trachomatis infection{{#pmid:15688042|PMID15688042}}
===Chlamydophila abortus===
{|
| [[File:Chlamydia life cycle cartoon.jpg|400px]]
| Originally called ''Chlamydia psittaci'' A Chlamydiae species (''C. abortus'') [[Histology_Stains#Gram_Stain|gram-negative]] bacteria associated with genital tract infections that causes abortion (chlamydiosis in pregnancy) and fetal death in mammals, including humans, and a major cause of fetal loss in sheep (ovine enzootic abortion) and cattle.
Chlamydia life cycle
Infection begins with the attachment of the elementary bodies (EB) to the surface of target epithelial cells. These cells promote a pseudopod formation to engulf the EB.
Inside the cytoplasm this bacterium inhibits the fusion of the vesicle with the cell lysosomes. The nascent inclusion is accompanied by the transition from EBs to reticulate bodies (RB). Late in the cycle, RBs replicate by binary fission to generate both RBs and intermediate bodies (IB). At this stage, antigenic proteins are exposed into the cell surface. An elongated, aberrant RB could be formed at this time with an arrest on chlamydia cycle originating a persistent infection, or continuing the cycle. The various intracytoplasmic inclusions with bacterium inside, can also be fused in this phase, and the agent develop into intermediate bodies (IB), before DNA condensation and RB transformation into a newly EB. The mature inclusion increases in size with EB formation, until becoming infectious and released into the extracellular space to continue a new intracellular cycle.
N – nucleus; G – Golgi apparatus: EB – elementary bodies; RB – reticulate bodies; IB – intermediate bodies. (modified text from figure legend)
|}
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal_Development_-_Ectopic_Implantation|Ectopic Implantation]]
== Bacterial Vaginosis ==
[[File:Bacteria_-_gram-stained_vaginal_smear_11.jpg|thumb|Bacterial vaginosis (gram-stained vaginal smear){{#pmid:16225680|PMID16225680}}]]
[[Image:Lactobacillus.jpg|thumb|Lactobacillus, gram-positive rods among squamous epithelial cells and neutrophils in vaginal smear (Image CDC)]]
* Bacterial vaginosis imbalance of the normal vaginal flora (more anaerobic bacteria and less normal gram-positive bacteria ''Lactobacillus sp'').
* Maternal infection is associated with a variety of pregnancy abnormalities including preterm birth and poor perinatal outcome.{{#pmid:16460868|PMID16460868}}
{{Histology vaginal smear}}
== Prokaryote Mycoplasmas ==
* smallest self-replicating organisms, with the smallest genomes (about 500 to 1000 genes)
* spherical to filamentous cells, no cell walls
* surface parasites of the human respiratory and urogenital tracts
** ''Mycoplasma pneumoniae'' infect the upper and lower respiratory tract
** ''Mycoplasma genitalium'' a prevalent sexually transmitted infection
** ''Mycoplasma hyorhinis'' found in patients with AIDS
:Search PubMed: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Mycoplasma+pneumoniae+Pregnancy ''Mycoplasma pneumoniae Pregnancy''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Mycoplasma+genitalium+Pregnancy ''Mycoplasma genitalium Pregnancy''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Mycoplasma+hyorhinis+Pregnancy ''Mycoplasma hyorhinis Pregnancy'']
== Gram Stain ==
Bacterial staining procedure named after Hans Christian Gram (1853 - 1938). Generally divides bacteria into either:
* '''Gram-positive bacteria''' - purple crystal violet stain is trapped by layer of peptidoglycan (forms outer layer of the cell).
* '''Gram-negative bacteria''' - outer membrane prevents stain from reaching peptidoglycan layer in the periplasm, outer membrane then permeabilized and pink safranin counterstain is trapped by peptidoglycan layer.
:'''Links:''' [[Histology Stains#Gram Stain|Histology Stains]] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=mmed.figgrp.296 Medical Microbiology - Gram stain procedure]
==Antibiotics==
Many common pregnancy related bacterial infections, such as maternal urinary tract infection (UTI), are safely treated with [[#Antibiotics|antibiotics]] that can also cross the placenta. Most antibiotics have good data available on their teratogenic and toxic risks, while some antibiotics have limited data available. Teratogenic potential below is based upon the availability of published data from a 2006 literature study.{{#pmid:16648419|PMID16648419}}
* none - penicillin G and VK
* unlikely - amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, levofloxacin, and rifampin
* undetermined - clindamycin, gentamicin, and vancomycin
Assessments were based on "good data" (penicillin G and VK), "fair data" (amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, levofloxacin, and rifampin), "limited data" (clindamycin and gentamicin), and "very limited data" (vancomycin).
Antibiotic use should also be considered postnatally, with transfer from mother to infant through lactation and breast milk.{{#pmid:28556499|PMID28556499}} There has also been recent public concern about the persistence of antibiotics in animals used for human food production, with very little teratogenic data available for this concept.
Note that pregnant and breastfeeding women are generally excluded from drug clinical trials and most data comes from animal studies.{{#pmid:28925019|PMID28925019}}
:'''Links:''' [[Abnormal Development - Drugs]] | [[Normal Development - Milk|Milk]]
== Australian NHMRC Guidelines ==
{{NHMRC Guidelines}}




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<references/>
<references/>


===Reviews===
=== Reviews ===
{{#pmid:20877404}}


===Articles===
{{#pmid:16374219}}


===Search Pubmed===
{{#pmid:16085020}}


June 2010
{{#pmid:15784499}}


'''Search Pubmed:''' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=]
{{#pmid:15861401}}
 
{{#pmid:12648833}}
 
{{#pmid:10816189}}
 
{{#pmid:6293753}}
 
=== Articles ===
 
{{#pmid:16460868}}
 
{{#pmid:16825336}}
 
{{#pmid:16458647}}
 
{{#pmid:12781402}}
 
{{#pmid:11734711}}
 
{{#pmid:10456962}}
 
===Pubmed===
 
'''Bookshelf'''
 
* '''Approved Lists of Bacterial Names''' Edited by VBD Skerman, Vicki McGowan, and PHA Sneath. Washington (DC): ASM Press; 1989. ISBN-13: 978-1-55581-014-6 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK814 PMID 20806452
 
 
* Search Jan2006 "bacterial infection" '''547,445''' reference articles of which '''45,020''' were reviews.
 
'''Search PubMed:''' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=embryonic%20bacterial%20infection embryonic bacterial infection] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=prenatal%20bacterial%20infection prenatal bacterial infection] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=maternal%20bacterial%20infection maternal bacterial infection] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Chorioamnionitis Chorioamnionitis]


== External Links ==
== External Links ==
{{External Links}}
* '''CDC (USA)''' Public Health Training Network [http://www.phppo.cdc.gov/phtn/webcast/epv06/default.asp Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases] (viewable Webcasts requires Media Player) | [http://www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/provisional_recs/default.htm Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Recommendations]
* '''Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (UK)''' [http://www.rcog.org.uk/index.asp?PageID=307 Infection and Pregnancy - study group recommendations (Jun 2001)]
* [https://reprotox.org REPROTOX] - contains summaries on the effects of medications, chemicals, infections, and physical agents on pregnancy, reproduction, and development.


{{Glossary}}


{{Template:Glossary}}
{{Template:Footer}}


[[Category:Abnormal Development]] [[Category:Bacteria]]
{{Footer}}
[[Category:Abnormal Development]] [[Category:Bacteria]] [[Category:Environmental Abnormalities]]

Latest revision as of 09:26, 17 February 2020

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Introduction

The spirochete bacteria treponema pallidum, the cause of syphillis.

The variety of bacterial infections that can occur during pregnancy is as variable as the potential developmental effects, from virtually insignificant to major developmental, abortive or fatal in outcome. Some bacteria are common and are part of the normal genital tract flora (Lactobacillus sp), while other bacterial infections are less common or even rare and initially infect/transmit by air or fluids through the different epithelia (genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract).

Note that some infections may have historic or alternative common names, for example Pertussis "whooping cough".


Maternal uterine tubal damage by bacterial infection (Chlamydia trachomatis) can also lead to Ectopic Implantation.


Many common pregnancy related bacterial infections, such as maternal urinary tract infection (UTI), are safely treated with antibiotics that can also cross the placenta. Most antibiotics have good data available on their teratogenic and toxic risks, while some antibiotics have limited data available.[1] This should also be considered postnatally, with transfer from mother to infant through lactation and breast milk. Note that pregnant and breastfeeding women are generally excluded from drug clinical trials and most data comes from animal studies.[2]


NSW Pertussis Notification Graph (2012-16)
NSW Pertussis Notification Graph (2012-16)
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Some Recent Findings

  • The Safety of Influenza and Pertussis Vaccination in Pregnancy in a Cohort of Australian Mother-Infant Pairs, 2012-2015: The FluMum Study[3] "Inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and pertussis vaccination are recommended in pregnancy. Limited safety data exist for women who received IIV vaccine during the first trimester of pregnancy or received both vaccines in pregnancy. We assessed adverse birth outcomes between vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnancies. METHODS: Among prospectively enrolled Australian "FluMum" participants (2012-2015), primary exposure was receipt and timing of IIV during pregnancy. Primary outcomes included preterm birth, low birthweight at term (LBWT), and small for gestational age (SGA). We compared birth outcomes for IIV in pregnancy with women unvaccinated in pregnancy using Cox proportional hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). ...No significant associations were found between maternal IIV or pertussis vaccination in pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes, regardless of the trimester of pregnancy a vaccination was given compared to unvaccinated pregnancies."
  • Lipopolysaccharide-induced maternal inflammation induces direct placental injury without alteration in placental blood flow and induces a secondary fetal intestinal injury that persists into adulthood[4] "Premature birth complicates 10%-12% of deliveries. Infection and inflammation are the most common etiologies and are associated with increased offspring morbidity and mortality. We hypothesize that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal inflammation causes direct placenta injury and subsequent injury to the fetal intestine. mouse - Lipopolysaccharide causes a maternal inflammatory response that is mirrored in the placenta. Placental histology demonstrates structural changes; however, placental blood flow is preserved. LPS also induces an indirect intestinal injury in the offspring that lasts beyond the neonatal period."
More recent papers  
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This table allows an automated computer search of the external PubMed database using the listed "Search term" text link.

  • This search now requires a manual link as the original PubMed extension has been disabled.
  • The displayed list of references do not reflect any editorial selection of material based on content or relevance.
  • References also appear on this list based upon the date of the actual page viewing.


References listed on the rest of the content page and the associated discussion page (listed under the publication year sub-headings) do include some editorial selection based upon both relevance and availability.

More? References | Discussion Page | Journal Searches | 2019 References | 2020 References

Search term: Bacteria Teratogen

Older papers  
These papers originally appeared in the Some Recent Findings table, but as that list grew in length have now been shuffled down to this collapsible table.

See also the Discussion Page for other references listed by year and References on this current page.

  • Pertussis - There has been a recent significant increase in the total number of pertussis (whooping cough) notifications in NSW, Australia.
  • Tuberculosis (TB) during pregnancy[5] This BJOG paper describes a study which highlights lack of awareness about TB in pregnancy. The number of women who die from TB during pregnancy is increasing in the UK. TB has been classified as a priority infectious disease, and TB incidence in the UK is now higher than that in most western European countries. "All 229 of eligible UK hospitals participated (between August 2005 and August 2006), representing 100% coverage of women giving birth in the UK. During this period, a total of 33 women were diagnosed with TB during pregnancy. All of these women were non-white. Researchers found that TB in pregnancy in the UK appears to be exclusively limited to ethnic minority women and almost exclusively to those born outside the UK.The authors noted that screening for TB during pregnancy, while recommended, does not seem to be undertaken routinely. This may contribute to a delay in diagnosis."
  • Antibiotics during pregnancy[6] "Macrolides or clindamycin during the second trimester of pregnancy to women at risk of preterm births can lower the risk, a new systematic review and meta-analysis by Canadian researchers indicates. But the study also found that giving metronidazole alone in the second trimester is linked with a greater risk of preterm birth in the high risk population. The study's authors, from the University of Montreal and Laval University, Quebec, say that delivery before 37 weeks' gestation complicates between 7% and 11% of all pregnancies, is the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality, and is responsible for high healthcare costs"
  • A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus[7] "Meningitis and sepsis caused by serogroup B meningococcus are two severe diseases that still cause significant mortality. To date there is no universal vaccine that prevents these diseases. In this work, five antigens discovered by reverse vaccinology were expressed in a form suitable for large-scale manufacturing and formulated with adjuvants suitable for human use. The vaccine adjuvanted by aluminum hydroxide induced bactericidal antibodies in mice against 78% of a panel of 85 meningococcal strains representative of the global population diversity."
  • Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus[8] "Bactericidal levels of ampicillin in the cord blood are rapidly achieved within 30 minutes of administration of ampicillin to the mother. The increase in the ratio of cord to maternal serum ampicillin levels is directly related to time, suggesting a decrease in the clearance of ampicillin in the newborns as compared to the mothers. The cord blood ampicillin concentration exceeds the maternal concentration and both continue to be above the minimal bactericidal concentrations at 5.6 hours after administration."

Neisseria Gonorrhea

Neisseria-gonorrhoeae.jpg
Neisseria Gonorrhea, arrowed within a cell (diplococci) and extracellular (pleomorphic) (Image CDC)
The gram-negative bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae causes the disease Gonorrhea which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Maternal infection increases the risk of premature birth and ophthalmia neonatorum (infantile purulent conjunctivitis).

A recent paper has described in the rat mother to the fetus during pregnancy, suggesting this as a model for human transmission.[9]


Links: Abnormal Development - Gonorrhea

Listeria Monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes bacteria (Image CDC)

The bacterium Listeria monocytogenes is the pathogenic form of the 7 listeria species. Infection is generally through ingestion of organisms in contaminated food. Maternal symptoms may be mild, fetal effects can range from insignificant through to major abnormalities. Maternal treatment relates to potential developmental effects. Pregnancy greatly increases the risk of listeriosis, with pregnant women about 60% of all cases (male and female) aged 10 to 40 years. Similar effects are seem in other mammalian species.[10] and the Guinea pig placenta listeria model[11] Generalized suppression of immunity during pregnancy is suggest to have a role in susceptibility, though recent results in a mouse model suggest that susceptibility can occur very early in a pregnancy and may relate to enteric carriage rate.[10]

Infection

  1. ingestion of contaminated food
  2. colonization of the intestine
  3. intestinal translocation
  4. replication in the liver and spleen
  5. either the resolution of infection or spread to other organs resulting in a systemic infection


Links: Abnormal Development - Listeria | Medical Microbiology - Listeria

Lyme Disease

Borrelia burgdorferi, spirochete (or "corkscrew-shaped" bacteria) (Image CDC)

The bacterium spirochete Borrelia Burgdorferi causes Lyme disease. Infection can be through the blood by tick bite.

Links: CDC (USA) - Lyme Disease

Mycoplasma

Mycoplasma in respiratory epithelium (M, mycoplasma; m, microvillus; C, cilia, EM Image CDC)

Mycoplasmas come in many different varieties, occur as part of the normal human flora, and lack a bacterial cell wall. Infection is generally through the female genital tract.

Links: NCBI Bookshelf Medical Microbiology - Mycoplasma | CDC Mycoplasmas: Sophisticated, Reemerging, and Burdened by Their Notoriety

Syphilis

Treponema-pallidum.jpg
Treponema pallidum (scanning EM, Image CDC)
The bacterium Treponema pallidum causes syphilis which is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Infection can lead to congenital infection with abortion, prematurity, neonatal death or multiple system abnormalities.


Links: Abnormal Development - Syphilis | CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - STD and Pregnancy

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis

Mycobacterium-tuberculosis.jpgMycobacterium Tuberculosis (scanning EM, Image CDC)
Robert Koch (1843 - 1910) Discoverer of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the organism that causes tuberculosis and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.

The gram-positive bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes the disease Tuberculosis (TB) usually initially infecting the lungs. The infection can cross the placenta to infect the fetus infecting many different systems (liver, bones, kidneys, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, skin, lymph nodes).

More than two billion people, one third of the world's total population, are infected with TB bacilli, an airborne infectious disease that is preventable and curable.

The Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine was first used in 1921 as a vaccine for tuberculosis disease and also used in some countries to prevent childhood tuberculous meningitis and miliary disease.

   
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB2) is a highly drug-resistant strain subset of MDR-TB ([#MDR-Tuberculosis multidrug-resistant TB]) that have significantly worse outcomes, has now been reported in more than 50 countries. (WHO data)

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs (isoniazid and rifampicin).

Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB2) is defined as MDR-TB plus resistance to the most powerful second-line anti-TB drugs (any fluoroquinolone and any of the three injectable drugs: amikacin, capreomycin and kanamycin).

 

WHO Report 2007 - Global tuberculosis new cases 2007.jpg

Australian Recommendations

BCG vaccination is not recommended for general use in the Australian population.

BCG is recommended for:

  1. Aboriginal neonates in areas of high incidence of TB (e.g. Northern Territory, Far North Queensland, northern areas of Western Australia and South Australia)
  2. neonates and children 5 years and under who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
  3. neonates born to parents with leprosy or a family history of leprosy

In addition to these recommendations BCG may be considered in the following:

  1. Children over 5 years who will be travelling or living in countries or areas with a high prevalence of TB for extended periods
  2. Health care workers (HCWs) who may be at high risk of exposure to drug resistant cases.

(Text Source: Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 30 Number 1, March 2006 - The BCG vaccine: information and recommendations for use in Australia)


Links: Abnormal Development - Tuberculosis

Melioidosis

(Greek, melis = distemper of asses, oeidēs, resemblance, and osis, a suffix indicating an abnormal condition or disease. The bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei is normally found in soil surface layers and in muddy surface waters.

  • 1912 - Alfred Whitmore, a British pathologist serving in Burma, and his assistant C. S. Krishnaswami first described melioidosis. The infection became known as Whitmore’s disease.
  • 1925 - Ambrose T. Stanton and William Fletcher identified Burkholderia pseudomallei as the infection’s causative agent, renamed the infection melioidosis because of its clinical resemblance to glanders. Glanders is an infectious disease that is caused by another bacterium Burkholderia mallei.


Links: Queensland Health | CDC - Etymologia: Melioidosis

Bacterial Meningitis

Neisseria meningitidis (arrowed, Image CDC)

The bacterium Neisseria meningitidis or Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) can cause the disease bacterial meningitis.

Hib immunization for infants and children are generally recommended.

Recently a universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus has been developed (See meningococcal vaccine 2001[12])


Haemophilus influenzae (bright green immunofluorescence, Image CDC)


Links: CDC (USA) - Meningococcal Disease | Medline Plus - Meningitis |

Pertussis

The bacterium Bordetella pertussis can cause the disease Pertussis (Whooping Cough) can lead to infant mortality.

May 2005 - First Combination Vaccine Approved to Help Protect Adolescents Against Whooping Cough USA Food and Drug Administration has approved booster immunization against pertussis (whooping cough) in combination with tetanus and diphtheria for adolescents. Pertussis is a highly contagious bacterial disease. (FDA 03 May 2005)

Links: CDC (USA) - Pertussis | Medline Plus - Pertussis | Pertussis Vaccination: Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) |

Salmonella

Salmonellosis is the infection caused bacterial genus Salmonella, these are mainly associated with foodborne transmission from contaminated animal–derived meat and dairy products. Though infection can also occur after handling pets, particularly reptiles like snakes, turtles and lizards.


Links: MedlinePlus - Salmonella | CDC - Salmonellosis

Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus (scanning EM, Image CDC)

Staphylococcus aureus a gram-positive bacterium commonly present (25% of healthy people and animals) on the skin and nasal surfaces, no vaccines are available. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia (SAB), commonly known as ‘golden staph’ and has risk factors including injectable drug use, haemodialysis, indwelling vascular catheters and immunosuppression.[13] Strains of this bacteria can produce toxins related to food poisoning and be resistant to various antibiotics.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics including Methicillin, there are other strains which are resistant to specific antibiotics (vancomycin).

About 2% of Staphylococcus aureus produce a toxin Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) which can be fatal in neonates.


Links: CDC (USA) - Staphylococcus | CDC (USA) - emerging infectious diseases | Medline Plus - Staph aureus food poisoning | Medical Microbiology - Staphylococcus


Cholera

Cholera is an infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The cholera bacterium is usually found in water or food contaminated by faeces and the incubation period ranges from less than one day to five days. The bacteria produces an enterotoxin that causes a watery diarrhoea, leading to severe dehydration and death if treatment is not promptly given. Vomiting also occurs in most patients. Outbreaks are generally associated with poor sanitation and water supply. Recent outbreaks have been identified in Haiti and Mexico.


Links: Medline Plus | Medical Microbiology - Cholera | WHO - Cholera

Chlamydia

Chlamydia trachomatis

[[File:Female_genital_tract_chlamydia_trachomatis_infection_02.jpg|thumb|Chlamydia trachomatis developmental cycle[14]

A genus of bacteria commonly as a sexually transmitted disease. Chlamydia trachomatis is a a gram-negative bacterium associated with uterine tube damage and infections are a risk factor for ectopic implantation. An infected mother can during childbirth also pass chlamydia to the neonate.

Female genital tract chlamydia trachomatis infection 01.jpg

Female genital tract chlamydia trachomatis infection[14]

Chlamydophila abortus

Chlamydia life cycle cartoon.jpg Originally called Chlamydia psittaci A Chlamydiae species (C. abortus) gram-negative bacteria associated with genital tract infections that causes abortion (chlamydiosis in pregnancy) and fetal death in mammals, including humans, and a major cause of fetal loss in sheep (ovine enzootic abortion) and cattle.

Chlamydia life cycle

Infection begins with the attachment of the elementary bodies (EB) to the surface of target epithelial cells. These cells promote a pseudopod formation to engulf the EB. Inside the cytoplasm this bacterium inhibits the fusion of the vesicle with the cell lysosomes. The nascent inclusion is accompanied by the transition from EBs to reticulate bodies (RB). Late in the cycle, RBs replicate by binary fission to generate both RBs and intermediate bodies (IB). At this stage, antigenic proteins are exposed into the cell surface. An elongated, aberrant RB could be formed at this time with an arrest on chlamydia cycle originating a persistent infection, or continuing the cycle. The various intracytoplasmic inclusions with bacterium inside, can also be fused in this phase, and the agent develop into intermediate bodies (IB), before DNA condensation and RB transformation into a newly EB. The mature inclusion increases in size with EB formation, until becoming infectious and released into the extracellular space to continue a new intracellular cycle.

N – nucleus; G – Golgi apparatus: EB – elementary bodies; RB – reticulate bodies; IB – intermediate bodies. (modified text from figure legend)

Links: Ectopic Implantation

Bacterial Vaginosis

Bacterial vaginosis (gram-stained vaginal smear)[15]
Lactobacillus, gram-positive rods among squamous epithelial cells and neutrophils in vaginal smear (Image CDC)
  • Bacterial vaginosis imbalance of the normal vaginal flora (more anaerobic bacteria and less normal gram-positive bacteria Lactobacillus sp).
  • Maternal infection is associated with a variety of pregnancy abnormalities including preterm birth and poor perinatal outcome.[16]


Smear Image Links: L. crispatus | L. crispatus | non-L. crispatus with thin lactobacilli | non-L. crispatus with thin lactobacilli | mixture non-L. crispatus with L. crispatus | mixture non-L. crispatus with L. crispatus | irregular-shaped Gram positive rod | irregular-shaped Gram positive rod | mixture Lactobacillus and bacterial vaginosis-associated | mixture Lactobacillus and bacterial vaginosis-associated | bacterial vaginosis | bacterial vaginosis
Links: Menstrual Cycle - Histology | Histology - Gram Stain | Bacterial Vaginosis | CDC (USA) Fact Sheet - Bacterial Vaginosis

Prokaryote Mycoplasmas

  • smallest self-replicating organisms, with the smallest genomes (about 500 to 1000 genes)
  • spherical to filamentous cells, no cell walls
  • surface parasites of the human respiratory and urogenital tracts
    • Mycoplasma pneumoniae infect the upper and lower respiratory tract
    • Mycoplasma genitalium a prevalent sexually transmitted infection
    • Mycoplasma hyorhinis found in patients with AIDS


Search PubMed: Mycoplasma pneumoniae Pregnancy | Mycoplasma genitalium Pregnancy | Mycoplasma hyorhinis Pregnancy

Gram Stain

Bacterial staining procedure named after Hans Christian Gram (1853 - 1938). Generally divides bacteria into either:

  • Gram-positive bacteria - purple crystal violet stain is trapped by layer of peptidoglycan (forms outer layer of the cell).
  • Gram-negative bacteria - outer membrane prevents stain from reaching peptidoglycan layer in the periplasm, outer membrane then permeabilized and pink safranin counterstain is trapped by peptidoglycan layer.


Links: Histology Stains | Medical Microbiology - Gram stain procedure

Antibiotics

Many common pregnancy related bacterial infections, such as maternal urinary tract infection (UTI), are safely treated with antibiotics that can also cross the placenta. Most antibiotics have good data available on their teratogenic and toxic risks, while some antibiotics have limited data available. Teratogenic potential below is based upon the availability of published data from a 2006 literature study.[1]

  • none - penicillin G and VK
  • unlikely - amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, levofloxacin, and rifampin
  • undetermined - clindamycin, gentamicin, and vancomycin

Assessments were based on "good data" (penicillin G and VK), "fair data" (amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, levofloxacin, and rifampin), "limited data" (clindamycin and gentamicin), and "very limited data" (vancomycin).


Antibiotic use should also be considered postnatally, with transfer from mother to infant through lactation and breast milk.[17] There has also been recent public concern about the persistence of antibiotics in animals used for human food production, with very little teratogenic data available for this concept.


Note that pregnant and breastfeeding women are generally excluded from drug clinical trials and most data comes from animal studies.[2]


Links: Abnormal Development - Drugs | Milk

Australian NHMRC Guidelines

NHMRC Guidelines "are intended to promote health, prevent harm, encourage best practice and reduce waste" have replaced the earlier historic 1988 NHMRC recommendations.

Links: Clinical Practice Guidelines - Pregnancy Care (2019) | PDF | Related Documents | Australian Clinical Practice Guidelines | NHMRC guidelines


Historic - NHMRC (1988) Recommendations  
Historic Disclaimer - information about historic embryology pages 
Mark Hill.jpg
Pages where the terms "Historic" (textbooks, papers, people, recommendations) appear on this site, and sections within pages where this disclaimer appears, indicate that the content and scientific understanding are specific to the time of publication. This means that while some scientific descriptions are still accurate, the terminology and interpretation of the developmental mechanisms reflect the understanding at the time of original publication and those of the preceding periods, these terms, interpretations and recommendations may not reflect our current scientific understanding.     (More? Embryology History | Historic Embryology Papers)

Neonates be assessed for follow-up care under the following conditions:

  • Birthweight less than 1500g or gestational age less than 32 weeks
  • Small-for-gestational-age neonates
  • Perinatal asphyxia
  • Apgar score less than 3 at 5 minutes
  • clinical evidence of neurological dysfunction
  • delay in onset of spontaneous respiration for more than 5 minutes and requiring mechanical ventilation
  • Clinical evidence of central nervous system abnormalities ie., seizures, hypotonia
  • Hyperbilirubinaemia of greater than 350umol/l in full term neonates
  • Genetic, dysmorphic or metabolic disorders or a family history of serious genetic disorder
  • Perinatal or serious neonatal infection including children of mothers who are HIV positive
  • Psychosocial problems eg., infants of drug-addicted or alcoholic mothers.


References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Nahum GG, Uhl K & Kennedy DL. (2006). Antibiotic use in pregnancy and lactation: what is and is not known about teratogenic and toxic risks. Obstet Gynecol , 107, 1120-38. PMID: 16648419 DOI.
  2. 2.0 2.1 Illamola SM, Bucci-Rechtweg C, Costantine MM, Tsilou E, Sherwin CM & Zajicek A. (2018). Inclusion of pregnant and breastfeeding women in research - efforts and initiatives. Br J Clin Pharmacol , 84, 215-222. PMID: 28925019 DOI.
  3. McHugh L, Marshall HS, Perrett KP, Nolan T, Wood N, Lambert SB, Richmond P, Ware RS, Binks P, Binks MJ & Andrews RM. (2019). The Safety of Influenza and Pertussis Vaccination in Pregnancy in a Cohort of Australian Mother-Infant Pairs, 2012-2015: The FluMum Study. Clin. Infect. Dis. , 68, 402-408. PMID: 30475988 DOI.
  4. Fricke EM, Elgin TG, Gong H, Reese J, Gibson-Corley KN, Weiss RM, Zimmerman K, Bowdler NC, Kalantera KM, Mills DA, Underwood MA & McElroy SJ. (2018). Lipopolysaccharide-induced maternal inflammation induces direct placental injury without alteration in placental blood flow and induces a secondary fetal intestinal injury that persists into adulthood. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. , 79, e12816. PMID: 29369434 DOI.
  5. Jana N, Barik S & Arora N. (2011). Tuberculosis in pregnancy--a major maternal and perinatal challenge. BJOG , 118, 1145-6; author reply 1146. PMID: 21749618 DOI.
  6. Knight M, Kurinczuk JJ, Nelson-Piercy C, Spark P & Brocklehurst P. (2009). Tuberculosis in pregnancy in the UK. BJOG , 116, 584-8. PMID: 19250368 DOI.
  7. Giuliani MM, Adu-Bobie J, Comanducci M, Aricò B, Savino S, Santini L, Brunelli B, Bambini S, Biolchi A, Capecchi B, Cartocci E, Ciucchi L, Di Marcello F, Ferlicca F, Galli B, Luzzi E, Masignani V, Serruto D, Veggi D, Contorni M, Morandi M, Bartalesi A, Cinotti V, Mannucci D, Titta F, Ovidi E, Welsch JA, Granoff D, Rappuoli R & Pizza M. (2006). A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 103, 10834-9. PMID: 16825336 DOI.
  8. Colombo DF, Lew JL, Pedersen CA, Johnson JR & Fan-Havard P. (2006). Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 194, 466-70. PMID: 16458647 DOI.
  9. Nowicki S, Selvarangan R & Anderson G. (1999). Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect. Immun. , 67, 4974-6. PMID: 10456962
  10. 10.0 10.1 Suyemoto MM, Spears PA, Hamrick TS, Barnes JA, Havell EA & Orndorff PE. (2010). Factors associated with the acquisition and severity of gestational listeriosis. PLoS ONE , 5, e13000. PMID: 20885996 DOI.
  11. Bakardjiev AI, Stacy BA & Portnoy DA. (2005). Growth of Listeria monocytogenes in the guinea pig placenta and role of cell-to-cell spread in fetal infection. J. Infect. Dis. , 191, 1889-97. PMID: 15871123 DOI.
  12. Morley SL, Cole MJ, Ison CA, Camaraza MA, Sotolongo F, Anwar N, Cuevas I, Carbonero M, Campa HC, Sierra G & Levin M. (2001). Immunogenicity of a serogroup B meningococcal vaccine against multiple Neisseria meningitidis strains in infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. , 20, 1054-61. PMID: 11734711
  13. Mitchell DH & Howden BP. (2005). Diagnosis and management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Intern Med J , 35 Suppl 2, S17-24. PMID: 16271058 DOI.
  14. 14.0 14.1 Brunham RC & Rey-Ladino J. (2005). Immunology of Chlamydia infection: implications for a Chlamydia trachomatis vaccine. Nat. Rev. Immunol. , 5, 149-61. PMID: 15688042 DOI.
  15. Verhelst R, Verstraelen H, Claeys G, Verschraegen G, Van Simaey L, De Ganck C, De Backer E, Temmerman M & Vaneechoutte M. (2005). Comparison between Gram stain and culture for the characterization of vaginal microflora: definition of a distinct grade that resembles grade I microflora and revised categorization of grade I microflora. BMC Microbiol. , 5, 61. PMID: 16225680 DOI.
  16. Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, Morselli-Labate AM, Lazzarotto T, Pilu G & Rizzo N. (2006). Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. , 128, 40-5. PMID: 16460868 DOI.
  17. Brucker MC & King TL. (2017). The 2015 US Food and Drug Administration Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule. J Midwifery Womens Health , 62, 308-316. PMID: 28556499 DOI.

Reviews

Gantert M, Been JV, Gavilanes AW, Garnier Y, Zimmermann LJ & Kramer BW. (2010). Chorioamnionitis: a multiorgan disease of the fetus?. J Perinatol , 30 Suppl, S21-30. PMID: 20877404 DOI.

Donders GG. (2006). Management of genital infections in pregnant women. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. , 19, 55-61. PMID: 16374219

Boggess KA. (2005). Pathophysiology of preterm birth: emerging concepts of maternal infection. Clin Perinatol , 32, 561-9. PMID: 16085020 DOI.

Hirsch E & Wang H. (2005). The molecular pathophysiology of bacterially induced preterm labor: insights from the murine model. J. Soc. Gynecol. Investig. , 12, 145-55. PMID: 15784499 DOI.

Cretekos CJ, Weatherbee SD, Chen CH, Badwaik NK, Niswander L, Behringer RR & Rasweiler JJ. (2005). Embryonic staging system for the short-tailed fruit bat, Carollia perspicillata, a model organism for the mammalian order Chiroptera, based upon timed pregnancies in captive-bred animals. Dev. Dyn. , 233, 721-38. PMID: 15861401 DOI.

Doganay M. (2003). Listeriosis: clinical presentation. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. , 35, 173-5. PMID: 12648833

Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC & Andrews WW. (2000). Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N. Engl. J. Med. , 342, 1500-7. PMID: 10816189 DOI.

Ross SM. (1982). Sexually transmitted diseases in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynaecol , 9, 565-92. PMID: 6293753

Articles

Guerra B, Ghi T, Quarta S, Morselli-Labate AM, Lazzarotto T, Pilu G & Rizzo N. (2006). Pregnancy outcome after early detection of bacterial vaginosis. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. , 128, 40-5. PMID: 16460868 DOI.

Giuliani MM, Adu-Bobie J, Comanducci M, Aricò B, Savino S, Santini L, Brunelli B, Bambini S, Biolchi A, Capecchi B, Cartocci E, Ciucchi L, Di Marcello F, Ferlicca F, Galli B, Luzzi E, Masignani V, Serruto D, Veggi D, Contorni M, Morandi M, Bartalesi A, Cinotti V, Mannucci D, Titta F, Ovidi E, Welsch JA, Granoff D, Rappuoli R & Pizza M. (2006). A universal vaccine for serogroup B meningococcus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 103, 10834-9. PMID: 16825336 DOI.

Colombo DF, Lew JL, Pedersen CA, Johnson JR & Fan-Havard P. (2006). Optimal timing of ampicillin administration to pregnant women for establishing bactericidal levels in the prophylaxis of Group B Streptococcus. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. , 194, 466-70. PMID: 16458647 DOI.

Goffinet F, Maillard F, Mihoubi N, Kayem G, Papiernik E, Cabrol D & Paul G. (2003). Bacterial vaginosis: prevalence and predictive value for premature delivery and neonatal infection in women with preterm labour and intact membranes. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. , 108, 146-51. PMID: 12781402

Morley SL, Cole MJ, Ison CA, Camaraza MA, Sotolongo F, Anwar N, Cuevas I, Carbonero M, Campa HC, Sierra G & Levin M. (2001). Immunogenicity of a serogroup B meningococcal vaccine against multiple Neisseria meningitidis strains in infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. , 20, 1054-61. PMID: 11734711

Nowicki S, Selvarangan R & Anderson G. (1999). Experimental transmission of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from pregnant rat to fetus. Infect. Immun. , 67, 4974-6. PMID: 10456962

Pubmed

Bookshelf

  • Approved Lists of Bacterial Names Edited by VBD Skerman, Vicki McGowan, and PHA Sneath. Washington (DC): ASM Press; 1989. ISBN-13: 978-1-55581-014-6 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK814 PMID 20806452


  • Search Jan2006 "bacterial infection" 547,445 reference articles of which 45,020 were reviews.

Search PubMed: embryonic bacterial infection | prenatal bacterial infection | maternal bacterial infection | Chorioamnionitis

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Cite this page: Hill, M.A. (2024, March 28) Embryology Abnormal Development - Bacterial Infection. Retrieved from https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Abnormal_Development_-_Bacterial_Infection

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© Dr Mark Hill 2024, UNSW Embryology ISBN: 978 0 7334 2609 4 - UNSW CRICOS Provider Code No. 00098G