2017 Group Project 2 - Revision history

Z8600021: Protected "2017 Group Project 2" ([Edit=Allow only administrators] (indefinite) [Move=Allow only administrators] (indefinite))

2017-10-26T22:16:03Z

Protected "2017 Group Project 2" ([Edit=Allow only administrators] (indefinite) [Move=Allow only administrators] (indefinite))

← Older revision	Revision as of 09:16, 27 October 2017
(No difference)

Z5015446 at 05:57, 26 October 2017

2017-10-26T05:57:49Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:57, 26 October 2017
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	* It is usually associated other congenital defects including oligohydramnios, as well as facial abnormalities including, wide set eyes and low-set ears, and a broad flat nose.		* It is usually associated other congenital defects including oligohydramnios, as well as facial abnormalities including, wide set eyes and low-set ears, and a broad flat nose.










	=Animal Models=		=Animal Models=

Z5015446: /* Anatomical Position */

2017-10-26T05:56:33Z

Anatomical Position

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:56, 26 October 2017
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	Unlike other abdominal organs, kidneys lie retroperitoneally in the abdomen, on either side of the vertebral column. As shown in figure 1, they are typical located between the transverse processes from Thoracic 12 (T12) to Lumbar 3 (L3) of the vertebrae, however the right kidney sits slightly more superior due to the large size of the liver.		Unlike other abdominal organs, kidneys lie retroperitoneally in the abdomen, on either side of the vertebral column. As shown in figure 1, they are typical located between the transverse processes from Thoracic 12 (T12) to Lumbar 3 (L3) of the vertebrae, however the right kidney sits slightly more superior due to the large size of the liver.

	[[File:kidney_structure2.~~jpg~~\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the adult kidney structure with the cortex, medulla, renal artery, renal vein, nephron and ureter labelled.]]		[[File:kidney_structure2.jpeg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the adult kidney structure with the cortex, medulla, renal artery, renal vein, nephron and ureter labelled.]]

	===Kidney Structure===		===Kidney Structure===

Z5015446: /* Developmental abnormalities */

2017-10-26T05:55:55Z

Developmental abnormalities

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	[[File:Horseshoe_kidney_01.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 9.''' Pathology specimen showing a lobulated, fused and horseshoe kidney]]		[[File:Horseshoe_kidney_01.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 8.''' Pathology specimen showing a lobulated, fused and horseshoe kidney]]

	===Horseshoe kidney===		===Horseshoe kidney===
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	* Horseshoe kidney is typically associated with other congenital defects, including Turners Syndrome, Wilms' Tumour, duplicated ureter, and Trisomy 18.		* Horseshoe kidney is typically associated with other congenital defects, including Turners Syndrome, Wilms' Tumour, duplicated ureter, and Trisomy 18.

	[[File:Wilms_tumor.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 10.''' Pathology specimen showing kidney with Wilms' Tumour also know as nephroblastoma]]		[[File:Wilms_tumor.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 9.''' Pathology specimen showing kidney with Wilms' Tumour also know as nephroblastoma]]


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	* A classic Wilms' tumour has three main cell types (stromal, epithelia, blastomal), giving it a triphasic appearance.		* A classic Wilms' tumour has three main cell types (stromal, epithelia, blastomal), giving it a triphasic appearance.

	[[File:Renal_agenesis_01.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 11.''' 3D scan displays right renal genesis with the presence of a normal keft kidney and absence of right kidney in renal fossa]]		[[File:Renal_agenesis_01.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 10.''' 3D scan displays right renal genesis with the presence of a normal keft kidney and absence of right kidney in renal fossa]]

	===Renal agenesis===		===Renal agenesis===
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	* It is usually associated other congenital defects including oligohydramnios, as well as facial abnormalities including, wide set eyes and low-set ears, and a broad flat nose.		* It is usually associated other congenital defects including oligohydramnios, as well as facial abnormalities including, wide set eyes and low-set ears, and a broad flat nose.











	=Animal Models=		=Animal Models=

Z5015446: /* Renal vasculature */

2017-10-26T05:54:02Z

Renal vasculature

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:54, 26 October 2017
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	====Glomerulus====		====Glomerulus====

	The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle''' ~~as shown in figure 6~~. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>		The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle'''. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>

	[[File:Juxtaglomerular Apparatus.jpeg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 7.''' The juxtaglomerular apparatus. Macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells and extraglomerular mesangial are labelled.]]		[[File:Juxtaglomerular Apparatus.jpeg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 6.''' The juxtaglomerular apparatus. Macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells and extraglomerular mesangial are labelled.]]

	====Juxtaglomerular apparatus====		====Juxtaglomerular apparatus====

	The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates the renal blood flow (volume and pressure) and glomerular filtration rate. Figure 7 displays the three different types of cells, namely '''macula densa''', '''juxtaglomerular cells''' and '''extraglomerular mesangial'''.<ref>Barajas L (1979). Anatomy of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''American Journal of Physiology'' 237: 333-343.</ref>		The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates the renal blood flow (volume and pressure) and glomerular filtration rate. Figure 6 displays the three different types of cells, namely '''macula densa''', '''juxtaglomerular cells''' and '''extraglomerular mesangial'''.<ref>Barajas L (1979). Anatomy of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''American Journal of Physiology'' 237: 333-343.</ref>

	*'''Macula densa''': The macula densa is a specialized area of the distal convoluted tubule where afferent arterioles enter the glomerulus and the efferent arterioles leave the glomerulus. The macula densa is able to detect changes in the levels of sodium chloride in the distal tubule of the nephron by the tubuloglomerular feedback loop.<ref>Persson AE, Ollerstam A, Liu R, Brown R (2004). Mechanisms for macula densa cell release of renin. ''Acta Physiologica Scandinavica'' 181: 471-474.</ref> [[File:Renin Angiotensin system.jpeg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 8.''' Renin-angiotensin system. Glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are labelled. This figure shows the flow of blood through the renin-angiotensin system and the resultant filtrate excretion as urine.<ref>Roman RJ, Fan F, Zhuo JL (2016). Internal renin-angiotensin system. ''Journal of the American Heart Association'' 67: 831-833. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07103</ref>]]		*'''Macula densa''': The macula densa is a specialized area of the distal convoluted tubule where afferent arterioles enter the glomerulus and the efferent arterioles leave the glomerulus. The macula densa is able to detect changes in the levels of sodium chloride in the distal tubule of the nephron by the tubuloglomerular feedback loop.<ref>Persson AE, Ollerstam A, Liu R, Brown R (2004). Mechanisms for macula densa cell release of renin. ''Acta Physiologica Scandinavica'' 181: 471-474.</ref> [[File:Renin Angiotensin system.jpeg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 7.''' Renin-angiotensin system. Glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are labelled. This figure shows the flow of blood through the renin-angiotensin system and the resultant filtrate excretion as urine.<ref>Roman RJ, Fan F, Zhuo JL (2016). Internal renin-angiotensin system. ''Journal of the American Heart Association'' 67: 831-833. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07103</ref>]]

	*'''Juxtaglomerular cells''': Juxtaglomerular cells are responsible for the synthesis, storage and secretion of renin in the kidneys. They line the walls of the afferent arterioles and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to '''(1) stimulation by macula densa cells when the concentration of sodium in tubular fluid decreases''', '''(2) stimulation of β1 adrenergic receptors by epinephrine or norepinephrine''' and '''(3) a decrease in renal perfusion pressure'''. Poorly perfused juxtaglomerular cells activate the renin-angiotensin system.<ref>Ito S (1997). Kidney and hypertension: role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 181: 411-429.</ref>		*'''Juxtaglomerular cells''': Juxtaglomerular cells are responsible for the synthesis, storage and secretion of renin in the kidneys. They line the walls of the afferent arterioles and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to '''(1) stimulation by macula densa cells when the concentration of sodium in tubular fluid decreases''', '''(2) stimulation of β1 adrenergic receptors by epinephrine or norepinephrine''' and '''(3) a decrease in renal perfusion pressure'''. Poorly perfused juxtaglomerular cells activate the renin-angiotensin system.<ref>Ito S (1997). Kidney and hypertension: role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 181: 411-429.</ref>

Z5178407 at 05:50, 26 October 2017

2017-10-26T05:50:31Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:50, 26 October 2017
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	Unlike other abdominal organs, kidneys lie retroperitoneally in the abdomen, on either side of the vertebral column. As shown in figure 1, they are typical located between the transverse processes from Thoracic 12 (T12) to Lumbar 3 (L3) of the vertebrae, however the right kidney sits slightly more superior due to the large size of the liver.		Unlike other abdominal organs, kidneys lie retroperitoneally in the abdomen, on either side of the vertebral column. As shown in figure 1, they are typical located between the transverse processes from Thoracic 12 (T12) to Lumbar 3 (L3) of the vertebrae, however the right kidney sits slightly more superior due to the large size of the liver.

	[[File:~~kidney_structure~~.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the adult kidney structure with the cortex, medulla, renal artery, renal vein, nephron and ureter labelled.]]		[[File:kidney_structure2.jpg\|300px\|thumb\|left\|'''Figure 2.''' Diagram of the adult kidney structure with the cortex, medulla, renal artery, renal vein, nephron and ureter labelled.]]

	===Kidney Structure===		===Kidney Structure===

Z5015446: /* Nephron development */

2017-10-26T05:49:58Z

Nephron development

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:49, 26 October 2017
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	Here is a quick animation depicting nephron development. The steps are summarised below.		Here is a quick animation depicting nephron development. The steps are summarised below.

	[[File:nephron_development_02.jpg\|350px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 4.''' Diagram displaying different stages of nephron development <ref>Schell C, Wanner N, Huber TB (2014). Glomerular development – shaping the multi-cellular filtration unit. ''Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology'' 36: 39-49. doi: 10.1016</ref>		[[File:nephron_development_02.jpg\|350px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 4.''' Diagram displaying different stages of nephron development <ref>Schell C, Wanner N, Huber TB (2014). Glomerular development – shaping the multi-cellular filtration unit. ''Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology'' 36: 39-49. doi: 10.1016</ref>]]

	<b>Stages in nephron formation:</b>		<b>Stages in nephron formation:</b>

Z5178407 at 05:47, 26 October 2017

2017-10-26T05:47:38Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:47, 26 October 2017
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	====Glomerulus====		====Glomerulus====
	~~[[File:Renal Corpuscle.jpg\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 6.''' Diagram displaying the glomerulus]]~~
	The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle''' as shown in figure 6. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>		The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle''' as shown in figure 6. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>

Z5178407 at 05:43, 26 October 2017

2017-10-26T05:43:48Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:43, 26 October 2017
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	The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates the renal blood flow (volume and pressure) and glomerular filtration rate. Figure 7 displays the three different types of cells, namely '''macula densa''', '''juxtaglomerular cells''' and '''extraglomerular mesangial'''.<ref>Barajas L (1979). Anatomy of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''American Journal of Physiology'' 237: 333-343.</ref>		The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates the renal blood flow (volume and pressure) and glomerular filtration rate. Figure 7 displays the three different types of cells, namely '''macula densa''', '''juxtaglomerular cells''' and '''extraglomerular mesangial'''.<ref>Barajas L (1979). Anatomy of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''American Journal of Physiology'' 237: 333-343.</ref>

	*'''Macula densa''': The macula densa is a specialized area of the distal convoluted tubule where afferent arterioles enter the glomerulus and the efferent arterioles leave the glomerulus. The macula densa is able to detect changes in the levels of sodium chloride in the distal tubule of the nephron by the tubuloglomerular feedback loop.<ref>Persson AE, Ollerstam A, Liu R, Brown R (2004). Mechanisms for macula densa cell release of renin. ''Acta Physiologica Scandinavica'' 181: 471-474.</ref> [[File:Renin Angiotensin system.jpeg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 8.''' Renin-angiotensin system. Glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are labelled. This figure shows the flow of blood through the renin-angiotensin system and the resultant filtrate excretion as urine.]]		*'''Macula densa''': The macula densa is a specialized area of the distal convoluted tubule where afferent arterioles enter the glomerulus and the efferent arterioles leave the glomerulus. The macula densa is able to detect changes in the levels of sodium chloride in the distal tubule of the nephron by the tubuloglomerular feedback loop.<ref>Persson AE, Ollerstam A, Liu R, Brown R (2004). Mechanisms for macula densa cell release of renin. ''Acta Physiologica Scandinavica'' 181: 471-474.</ref> [[File:Renin Angiotensin system.jpeg\|300px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 8.''' Renin-angiotensin system. Glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct are labelled. This figure shows the flow of blood through the renin-angiotensin system and the resultant filtrate excretion as urine.<ref>Roman RJ, Fan F, Zhuo JL (2016). Internal renin-angiotensin system. ''Journal of the American Heart Association'' 67: 831-833. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07103</ref>]]

	*'''Juxtaglomerular cells''': Juxtaglomerular cells are responsible for the synthesis, storage and secretion of renin in the kidneys. They line the walls of the afferent arterioles and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to '''(1) stimulation by macula densa cells when the concentration of sodium in tubular fluid decreases''', '''(2) stimulation of β1 adrenergic receptors by epinephrine or norepinephrine''' and '''(3) a decrease in renal perfusion pressure'''. Poorly perfused juxtaglomerular cells activate the renin-angiotensin system.<ref>Ito S (1997). Kidney and hypertension: role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 181: 411-429.</ref>		*'''Juxtaglomerular cells''': Juxtaglomerular cells are responsible for the synthesis, storage and secretion of renin in the kidneys. They line the walls of the afferent arterioles and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. Juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin in response to '''(1) stimulation by macula densa cells when the concentration of sodium in tubular fluid decreases''', '''(2) stimulation of β1 adrenergic receptors by epinephrine or norepinephrine''' and '''(3) a decrease in renal perfusion pressure'''. Poorly perfused juxtaglomerular cells activate the renin-angiotensin system.<ref>Ito S (1997). Kidney and hypertension: role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. ''The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 181: 411-429.</ref>

Z5178407 at 05:25, 26 October 2017

2017-10-26T05:25:54Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:25, 26 October 2017
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	====Glomerulus====		====Glomerulus====
	[[File:~~renal_corpuscle~~.~~png~~\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 6.''' Diagram displaying the glomerulus]]		[[File:Renal Corpuscle.jpg\|400px\|thumb\|right\|'''Figure 6.''' Diagram displaying the glomerulus]]
	The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle''' as shown in figure 6. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>		The glomerulus is a specialised network of blood capillaries that filters metabolic waste products in blood carried via the afferent blood arterioles. Metabolic waste products are filtered through '''fenestrae''', which are small pores with diameter of 50nm to 100nm, on endothelial cells lining the glomerular capillaries. The resultant glomerular filtrate of water and soluble solutes is transported to the Bowman’s capsule and subsequently, to the renal tubule of the nephron to form urine. The glomerular capillaries converge into efferent arterioles in which filtered blood is carried away from the glomerulus. The juxtaglomerular cells lining the walls of the afferent arterioles secrete renin and regulate the volume and pressure of blood flow via the renin-angiotensin system. The efferent arterioles have high resistance that generates hydrostatic pressure that is sufficient for '''ultrafiltration''' within the glomerulus. The glomerulus serves as the connection between the vascular system and the nephron. The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule form the filtration unit of the kidney known as the '''renal corpuscle''' as shown in figure 6. The '''glomerular filtration rate''' is the rate at which blood is completely filtered through the glomerulus and is a measure of the renal function. <ref>Pollak MR, Quaggin SE, Hoenig MP, Dworkin LD (2014). The glomerulus: the sphere of influence. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology'' 9: 1461-1469. doi: 10.2215/CJN.09400913.</ref>