Talk:Paper - An abnormal human foetus (1908)
An Abnormal Human Foetus
Chidester FE. An abnormal human foetus. (1908) Anat. Rec. 2: 257-265.
By
Floyd E. Chidester. From the Biological Laboratory, Clark University.
With Nine Figures.
Throiigli the kindness of Prof. C. F. Hodge, I was permitted during the past winter to dissect an interesting seven months' foetus presented to him by Mr. W. B. Fox, of the Harvard Medical School. Deformities of the limbs are quite common in human embryos, but complete absence of one leg is not so frequent.
Fig. 1. View from the front, showing the single lower extremity. Fig. 2. View from the side, showing the peculiar shape of the left hand.
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For the benefit of those who might be interested from an obstetrical point of view, I give the following history of the case:
Mother, housewife; general ph3'sical condition, good; number of pregnancies, two; labor began, October 24, 1907; first visit, 1.15 p, m.^ same day; presentation, vertex; position, occiput left anterior; cervix, taken up; OS uteri, wholly dilated; foetal heart, could not be heard; pulse of mother before, 86; after, 76; temperature before, 98.8; after, 99.2°; membranes ruptured, 9 a. m., October 24, 1907; child born, 1.30 p. m., October 24, 1907; placenta delivered, 3.10 p. m., October 24, 1907; condition of placenta when delivered, intact; perineum, intact; length of
(Esophagus
Right Lung
Left Lung,
Liver
Blind Sac
Intestine FiQ. 3. Rear view, showing the lungs and the (slit) oesophagus, etc.
cord, twenty inches ; duration of labor, seven hours ; sex, male ; age, seventh foetal month; weight, 3% pounds; length, fourteen inches.
The right leg was absent, the left leg being almost a continuation of the spinal column. As can be seen from Fig. 1, the penis was turned a little to the right. The left hand was singularly foot-like in appearance, and the left thumb was attached only to the first finger by a flap of skin.
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On receiving the specimen in weak formalin about a week after delivery/! injected the brain and spinal canal and the body cavity with 10 per cent formalin.
At the end of about two weeks I opened the skull and examined the brain, hoping to find it well enough preserved for study. Unfortunately, in the few days elapsing between birth and its receipt and injection, decomposition had rendered any neurological study impracticable. Though kept in strong formalin for over six weeks afterward, the brain did not harden.
Heart
Liver
Left Lung
Diaphragm
Intestine Fig. 4. Front view, showing the heart, liver, left lung, and coiled intestine.
My attention was next turned to the internal organs, which were singularly undeveloped. Fig. 3 shows the lungs, which, instead of being three-lobed and two-lobed respectively, have but a single lobe each.
It is interesting to note that, not only was there no stomach, but that on cutting open the oesophagus, no thickening of the walls was found in the region normally occupied by the stomach. A blind sac, indicated in the preceding figure, occupied a position just below the left lung. This was opened and found to be empty, and to have no opening to the exterior. It was attached by mesentery to the intestine
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Liver
Heart
Left Lung
Diaphragm
Intestine Fig. 5. View of the viscera from below.
External Cutaneous.
External Cutaneous
Fig. 6. Rear view of tlie lumbar and sacral nerves.
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261
Examination of the wall of the sac revealed the presence of the characteristic mucous, sub-mucous, muscular and serous coats of the digestive tract. This sac, or pouch, may have started as the stomach.
The heart was about one-fourth larger than normal. The liver was rather large, but normal in position. There were no kidneys, no spleen, no pancreas, and no appendix vermiformis. The intestine was otherwise norma), except that, as before stated, it was continuous with the oesoph
External Cutaneous
Anterior Crural
Obturator
Great Sciatic _
Small Sciatic —
Pudic —
Anterior Crural
External Cutaneous
Obturator
Great Sciatic
Anterior Crural
Fig. 7. Front view of the lumbar and sacral nerves.
agus. The anus, however, was imperforate for about one and a half inches. The right testis was undescended.
Since preparation of the brain was impossible, I proceeded to dissect the spinal nerves, and while doing so discovered the absence on the right side of the body of not only the femur, but also the ilium and ischium. This will be mentioned later.
The spinal ganglia were all present on both sides of the cord, but, beginning with the first lumbar, the ganglia on the right side were mucli smaller than those on the left.
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(schium
Penis
Fig. S. Skiaj^raph of the pelvic region, rear view,
The great sciatic nerve on the right side (Fig. 6) passed down into the scrotum and ramified as fine nervelets. All the lumbar and sacral nerves on the right side were distinctly smaller than the corresponding ones on the left side.
The anterior crural nerve on the right side (Fig. 7) sent oflE five branches, the main trunk continuing into the scrotal tissue, where it, like the great sciatic, ramified cutaneously.
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Metacarpal V.
Phalanx 1. Phalanx 2.Phalanx 3."
Radius
Ulna
Humerus
Fig. 9. Skiagraph of the arms.
The small sciatic nerve and the proportionately large piidendic nerves also ramified in the scrotum.
One of the most interesting features of the anatomy of this fcetus was the fact that the bones of the pelvis, as well as those of the extremity, were completely absent on the right side. The accompanying skiagraph (Fig. 8) indicates this clearly.
Careful dissection of the pelvic region confirmed the idea that there was not even cartilage in the place of these bones. The skiagraph shows
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plainly that the ilium and ischium on the left side are separate in this seven months' foetus.
The right arm and hand were perfectly normal. The left arm was normal down to the elbow. This was stiff. Fig. 9 indicates the deformity there present. The ulna was completely absent, and the radius and humerus formed a large, stiff joint.
The carpal bones of both hands do not show in the skiagraph, but dissection disclosed the fact that although unossified they were present as very soft cartilage. The left first metacarpal bone was absent.
The thumb was not in its normal position on the left hand. Instead, a ball of flesh containing one cartilaginous phalanx lay in the palm between the first and second fingers. It was attached by a small flap of skin to the second phalanx of the flrst finger. A nail was present on the dorsal aspect of this "thumb" as it lay in the palm.
I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. C. F. Hodge for the opportunity to work on this interesting specimen and for his many helpful suggestions concerning it. The photographic plates were made by Mr. Newton Miller, Clark University, and the skiagraph plates by Dr. Philip Cook, City Hospital, Worcester, Mass.
Summary.
The following abnormalities were discovered :
1. Lungs uni-lobed.
2. Heart one-fourth larger than normal.
3. Kidneys absent.
4. Vermiform appendix absent.
5. Pancreas absent.
6. Spleen absent.
7. Stomach, as such, absent ; a blind sac not in the normal position of the stomach may have originated as a stomach.
8. Anus imperforate for one and a half inches.
9. One testis undescended.
10. Bony structure which might be interpreted as belonging to a right leg completely absent.
11. Left thumb misplaced, with no first metacarpal bone on the left hand.
12. Ulna of the left forearm absent.
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BOOK REVIEWS
"Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum." I. An Early Ovum Imbedded in the Decidua. By Thomas II. Bryce, M.A., M.D., Lecturer in Anatomy, University of Glasgow, and John H. Teacher, M.A., M.D., Lecturer on Pathological Histology, University of Glasgow. With ten plates and twelve figures in the text. Glasgow: James Maclehose & Sons, Publishers to the University, 1908. Price, 12s. Gd. net.
About ten years ago Peters of Vienna described a human ovum measuring 2.4 mm. by 1.8 mm., which was obtained from the uterus a few hours after death. In all probability the specimen is normal, and until recently was the youngest specimen seen. Now Bryce and Teacher have found a still younger specimen in a piece of decidua sent to them for examination in a mixture of urine and blood-clots. The membrane had been expelled by a young woman who had been married for about two years, but who had not before been pregnant. The physician had recognized a piece of fawn-colored membrane among the blood-clots which he considered to be probably a portion of the decidua of pregnancy as the woman had passed her period by almost ten days. The specimen was cut into serial sections 7 microns thick and was found to contain a beautiful and probably normal ovum whose dimensions, including the syncytium, were 1.95 x 1.10 x .95 millimeters, that is, about as large as a fairly good-sized pin's head. It has thus been demonstrated that a young human ovum can be obtained in a satisfactory state of preservation in a fragment of endometrium, and from now on it will be necessary to examine with care all shreds of membrane which are shed a few days after the omission of a period as recommended by the late Professor His.
It is fortunate for the science of human embryology that this rare specimen has been studied carefully by Dr. Bryce, to whom we also owe a debt of gratitude for his excellent volume on human embryology in the recent edition (XI) of Quain's Anatomy. It could not have fallen into better hands.
The results of this study are given in the form of a superb publication made possible by a grant from the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish
A11 correspondence rejravding Rook Reviews sliculd be addressed to Dr. George L. Streeter, Ann Arbor, Micb.
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Universities. The plates are by the three-color process, which are so well done that they equal in many respects the best lithographs. The paper is composed of two parts, the first giving an excellent description of the specimen and the second giving a masterly discussion of its age. No doubt this permanent contribution to human embryolog}' will soon be read by all who are interested in this subject, and in order to hasten the circulation of this volume I cordially recommend it.
The following summary is given by Bryce and Teacher :
A study of the sections shows that the ovum is completely enclosed in deeidua except at one point, where there is a small gap closed by a mass of leucocytes and fibrin. The wide gap, closed by a blood-clot as seen in Peter's ovum, is entirely absent.
The ovum lies bathed in blood in a relatively large implantation chamber, with the walls of which it is not united. There is no interlocking or mixing of maternal and foetal tissues. The innermost layer of deeidua lining the cavity is in a state of advanced coagulation necrosis, and this, together with a certain amount of fibrinous deposit, forms a layer of dead material which is practically complete except at one or two points where blood-vessels have opened up, and at one end where hemorrhage has broken into the implantation chamber.
The wall of the ovum consists of an inner lamella (cyto-trophoblast or Langhans' la3'er) composed of cells rather ill-defined from one another, and continuous externally with an extremely irregular formation which has definitely plasmodial character (plasmodi-trophoblast or syncytium). This forms a straggling reticulum, the meshes of which are filled with maternal blood, forming primitive blood lacunae. The villi, if such they may be called, are formed wholly by the reticulum of s}Ticytium, there being no profusions of Langhans' cells nor mesoderm into it.
The cavity of the ovum is filled by a delicate tissue having the characters of mesenchyme. There is no cleavage of the early mesoderm into a parietal and a visceral layer with an exoccelom between them. It does not form a distinct lamella round the wall of the cavity and there are no protrusions from it representing future mesodermic villi.
The embryonic rudiment is represented by two eccentrically placed vesicles slung in the mesenchyme by fine protoplasmic threads. They are quite separated from the walls of the ovum by mesenchyme, and the cells forming the two sacs have definite and different characters, but inter se shown no differentiation. The cells of the larger (ectodermic) vesicle are cubical; those of the smaller (entodermic) vesicle are flattened.
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Eemarkable as some of these features of this new ovum are^ there is no reason to suppose that it is in an}^ way abnormal or pathological. Every one of its characters, as is shown in the memoir, liarmonizes admirably with known later stages. It is in no way contradictory or bizarre. It is not only consistent in itself, but it is also consistent both with admitted facts and with inferences founded upon these facts.
In the second part of the paper the age of young ova is discussed, and Bryce and Teacher reach the conclusion that they are considerably older than is generally believed, that is, when the convention of His is followed. According to this convention fertilization usually takes place just before the first omitted period, and the time between this and the abortion is the age of the ovum. In this case there was a single coitus on October 19th. Menstruation did not follow on October 25th, when it was due, and the abortion occurred on November 4th. Computing from the last period the specimen would be ten days old, and from the time of coitus sixteen days. Taking all of the factors into account they estimate its age at from thirteen to fourteen days.
In the mouse, rabbit and guinea-pig the implantation takes place on the sixth or seventh day, and it is improbable that it takes place earlier than this in man; and until it takes place it is difficult to believe that menstruation will cease. They therefore conclude that seven days must be allowed for segmentation and the early phases of implantation, and another seven days does not seem too much to allow for the growth and development of the ovum up to the stage presented in their case, when we consider the rate of growth in the moiise and guinea-pig and allow for the much longer gestation period in the human subject.
This conclusion is of especial interest to me as it confirms my own, which will be published in the new Human Embryology. Mine was obtained by extending the curve of growth back to the earliest stages which then become fully two weeks older than they are according to the convention of His. (See foot-note in the Jour. Morph., Vol. XIX, page 73.)
It is probable that fertilization usually takes place shortly after the last menstrual period, and as soon as the ovum is well implanted in the uterus the periods do not recur. For this reason ova and embryos of the same stage are often nearly a month apart in age when it is computed from the last period. This is especially marked in young specimen, for in them a few weeks' growth is very apparent.
The whole argument of Bryce and Teacher and myself is too long and too complicated to be given in a brief review, and those who are inter
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ested in this question are referred to the fuller accounts. The conclusion is that all of the ova believed to be of the first and second weeks are really of the third and fourth weeks, and that Peters' ovum is fifteen days old instead of four days as Peters believed it to be. Only the study of more very young stages which have complete histories, as have Eternod's and Bryce and Teacher's, with more careful study of the corpus luteum will fully settle this much-discussed question. For the present the evidence obtained from comparative studies, as first pointed out by von Baer and as again emphasized by Bryce and Teacher, proves to be the most valuable control in the solution of this perplexing problem. The necessary records are very difficult to obtain, are usually not reliable and are often marred by disease.
FranTclin P. Mall.
"Atlas and Text-Book of Human Anatomy.'" Volumes I, II and 111. By Professor J. Sobotta, of Wiirzburg. Edited, with additions, by J. Playfair McMurrich, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Anatomy at the University of Toronto, Canada. Quarto volumes of a total of 794 pages, containing 850 illustrations, mostly in colors. Philadelphia and London : W. B. Saunders Company, 190G. Cloth, $6.00 net, per volume. Half Morocco, $7.00 net.
This atlas with text is quite an exceptional production and worthy of very special consideration. A year's use in the dissecting-room has aroused much enthusiasm in the reviewer.
The illustrations of the work are, on the whole, the most artistic to be found in any text-book or atlas commonly available; while at the same time they are quite accurate, originally conceived and judiciously selected. The text is very clear, succinct and direct; yet withal sufficiently extensive for the field chosen. The description is very well adjusted to the figures constituting the atlas, and the editor's arrangement' of matter and use of headings and of type to facilitate reference, or to produce emphasis, is very successful.
The atlas consists of three bulky volumes. Vol. I, 258 pages, with 320 illustrations, includes the bones, ligaments, joints and muscles. Vol. II, 194 pages, with 315 illustrations, treats of the viscera and cavities of the body, and the heart. Vol. Ill, 342 pages, with 297 illustrations, forms the largest volume, and takes up the vascular system, lymphatic system, nervous system and sense organs. There are then,
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in all, 794 pages of text, with a few scattered explanatory figures and diagrams. It is exceptionally well printed, in clear type, on large size pages. In addition there are 335 large handsome plates, on heavy paper, bearing most of the 832 illustrations, one or several to a plate and mostly in colors. Dr. Sobotta has selected his figures and had them drawn to show all essentials with the maximum sharpness, yet without becoming diagrammatic. A text has been added to supplement the pictures, by referring the student to all the figures which show a given structure from various points of view; thus bringing together for him all that is needed to form a clear idea of a given region. The text is almost purely descriptive, and very concise. It does not wander into embryological, histological or surgical relations, but confines the account to what may be made out in the dissecting-room. There are frequent references to "Sobotta's Atlas and Epitome of Histology," and numerous paragraphs in small type giving embryological information, functions of muscles, general relations, etc.; but every efi^ort is made to keep the descriptive account simple and free from digressions. If the title read "Atlas with descriptive text" the scope of the work would be indicated better than by the more ambitious terra "text-book," which implies a more comprehensive treatment.
The following quotation from his preface gives the author's idea: "My first thought was to produce an atlas which would supply the practical wants of both the student and physician. It is not an atlas for the finished anatomist. The admirable atlas of Toldt contains a vast number of well-chosen illustrations; but it is so comprehensive that ij; is difficult for the student to pick out what he actually needs, and owing to its high price and the fact that many of its illustrations are not true to nature, it has not met with great favor from the student body. In the present atlas the aim has been to limit the material to what is absolutely necessary." . . , "The fundamental principle of the work has been to avoid any unusual presentation of the subject which would make the recognition of well-known relations more difficult for the beginner."
In Justice to Toldt we are obliged to record our disagreement from this view of his magnificent work. We have used Toldt's atlas (German edition) in the dissecting-rooms for several years, with ever-increasing admiration. It is certainly a masterpiece, produced by an anatomist with very great talent for dissection, and with remarkable artistic ability of the right type. He has secured pictures which represent the best
270 The Anatomical Record.
possible points of view, and has exhibited such a thorough grasp of the problems involved, and so great originality in solving them, as to succeed in furnishing us with a set of illustrations which leave very little to be desired. We may grant that a little more color here and there would improve some of Toldt's figures, but we entirely fail to understand how any of them can be characterized as "not true to nature."
Though perfection is not to be expected in anatomical atlases, an experience of several years has led us always to refer to Toldt where there is a complicated region to explain, or an obscurity to clear up, and we cannot remember a time when those vigorous and completely worked out figures have failed us or proved inaccurate. It is true that Toldt's illustrations are very numerous and often special in nature, but most of us would not regret this wealth of choice. It is surprising how many variations he succeeds in working in. His selection of embryological figures is especially good, and a valuable feature of his atlas. It is a great shame that the English edition of Toldt is so complete a failure, the cheap paper and travesties of the excellent German figures, with the crude lettering have robbed this edition of any right to success.
The German edition, however, deserves a wide circulation. It remains the most comprehensive, accurate, original and least diagrammatic atlas now published.
Having said so much for Toldt we still find Sobotta's atlas a remarkably fine production, with original and valuable features of its own.
In such complicated figures colors are almost necessary, but until recent years the cost has been almost prohibitive. Now, however, Sobotta's use of this valuable accessory is especially happy. His plates are striking examples of a most successful application of the modern photographic processes of illustrating which he describes briefiy in the preface. The German author and publisher have agreed on the use of the less expensive methods, but they have shown that cheap processes need not produce cheap looking pictures. They have insisted upon care and clearness in the working out of details in both dissections and drawings, and the plates are printed with equal skill. The result is an atlas with plates in several colors, even more satisfactory than the costly engraved plates of old atlases ; and yet obtainable at a price within reach of most students.
Here is an example of the importance of a knowledge of processes of reproduction in illustrating, and of a proper understanding of the type of artistic work best suited to the representation of anatomical structures. By using photography as a basis for his fi_gures, Sobotta has saved much
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time and labor, and has preserved correct proportions. He has not been satisfied with copying, in a superficial manner, merely general appearances ; but has had the photographs worked over to secure contrast and emphasis in suitable places, so that the resulting figures exhibit great vigor and sharpness.
The free use of color has made it possible to bring out details in the background, without confusing the picture. This has resulted in satisfactory figures of a complexity rarely attempted before in this field. Very considerable artistic skill and understanding has been required to do this work, and for this the author thanks the artists who have assisted.
The figures may be criticized, as compared with Toldfs, for instance, as somewhat too plastic, as if drawn from models rather than specimens ; structures are so extremely clean, and stand out so boldly; but it must be remembered that this is a part of tlie author's scheme. We think the slight exaggeration of relief and color and definiteness has not introduced any distortion of the facts of anatomy. The effect is to aid the student wonderfully to grasp the correct relations and to pick out special structures with ease. It is also certain that many of the effects which at first appear almost too clean and sharp in the atlas, can be reproduced in the actual dissections of good students with good material. The truth is, indefinite drawings are apt to be due to incompletely worked out dissections, and lack of accurate knowledge. With the pictures of this atlas before them students should be stimulated to dissect with a special degree of finish and thoroughness, and to carry away clear impressions.
After comparing the figures of Sobotta's atlas with those of recent American text-books of anatomy, it is evident that much unnecessary expense might have been avoided in these, by a simple reference to the beautiful figures of the atlas, or to those of Toldt or Spalteholz. It seems probable that for some time to come authors of such text-books will feel relieved of the burden and expense of constructing more figures like those of the atlases, and will turn their energies to more effective and discriminating treatment of the subject matter in their texts. The atlases will furnish students all necessary pictures for aid in their dissections, pictures far better than in the text-books. From time to time new figures of an elaborate character will be introduced into the atlases. These may take up special fields. The text-books may then refer to the standard figures of the atlases for descriptive purposes, and illustrate
272 The Anatomical Eecord.
other aspects of the subject by original figures of less elaborate character. This will do away with much duplication, promote more individuality in the texts, and lead to more originality in the supplementary illustration of special phases of anatomy. Such figures as Corning has given for topographical relations are admirable for this purpose, and they are very helpful to students, on account of the insistence upon only those particular characters necessary to enforce the argument of the text. They furnish a good type of drawing for the student's own sketches.
By using colors lavishly Sobotta has been able to make several departures in presenting his subject. An examination of the figures of the skull in the first volume would suffice to show how wonderfully its complexities are simplified. The same color is used for a given bone whenever it is shown in combination with others, where the relations are complicated. Difficulties disappear at once, relieving the text of much explanation. All through the atlas the colors are combined very harmoniously. The same advantages are secured for the representation of ligaments and tendons ending in bone, or in differentiating muscles from tendons. Here we have a definiteness which stops short of becoming diagrammatic. The same is true in the plates showing muscles, fascia, etc. The red color selected for muscles is in good taste, and makes a fine contrast with the other tissues.
The lettering is exceptionally well done all through the atlas, and will serve as a model for future authors. Guide lines are kept inconspicuous and the italicized type is never over prominent. The lettering is written directly on the structures indicated in many places, yet in a style to avoid marring the figures.
Vol. II contains some effective figures of the teeth, where the deciduous set is colored white and the permanent blue. The peritoneum, mediastinum and cavities of the body are well treated. A number of colored sections of the trunk, showing the relations of the viscera, are especially to be noticed, as well as a number of good explanatory diagrams in the text.
It is in Vol. Ill perhaps that the author carries out his program to the best effect. The possibility of using a variety of colors has enabled him to show the arteries, veins and nerves of various regions all in the same picture, while the muscles, bones, tendons, fat, etc., are also clearly represented in appropriate colors ; so that every structure stands out very sharply. The result is quite wonderful, even the finer plexuses and ramifications of vessels and nerves being easily identified at a glance. Eefer for instance to the figures showing the terminal vessels and nerves of the
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hand or foot, or of the orbit. This feature of the atlas is quite original and will enable students to verify the details of their own dissections directly; without turning so frequently from plate to plate to identify nerves, arteries or veins, as is necessary in other atlases, to secure an idea of the relations in a given region. A much needed plate is one showing the superficial blood-vessels and nerves of the front of the thorax and abdomen. There should be a more complete figure of the cardiac plexus.
The figures of the brain are quite adequate with some good diagrams and sections; the cerebral sinuses are very well done in Figs. 589 and 679 ; and there are many beautiful figures of both eye and ear where the colors are of great service.
The character of the text has already been considered and does not require further notice here; though a few general sections, as those on the peritoneum and brain, are worthy of special attention. A prominent feature is the very systematic manner in which the matter is presented. Numerous references throughout the text to figures in works on embr3^oIogy, as has been well done for histological details, are much to be desired. These could be placed in foot notes and would enable the student to find illustrations for many interesting relations merely suggested in this text. Eeference to figures of Kollmann's atlas might suffice.
In the index, reference numbers should be given to the different figures in which each structure appears. This would be helpful, since the plates are not arranged in the order followed by the student in his dissection.
There should also be a short carefully classified list of references to a few journals, books and articles treating of the various aspects of anatomy; as variations, comparative anatomy, neurology, embryology, topographical anatomy, applied anatomy, etc.
It is a pleasure to congratulate Dr. McMurrich on providing American students and teachers with this book, and the publishers for the admirable manner in M^hich they have done their work.
H. McE. Knower.
"Edinger^'s Lectures on the Central Nervous System^ Seventh Edition." ^ The first edition of this work was based on a course of lectures delivered in 1883-84 and designed to present the more important architectural
'Edinger, L. Vorlesungen iiber den Bau der Nervosen Zentralorgane des Menschen und der Tiere. Seventh Edition. Band I, Das Zentralnervensysteni der Menschen und der Siiugetiere, 1904. Band II, Vergleichende Auatomie des Gehirns, 190S. Leipzig, F. C. W. Vogel.
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features of the human brain to a medical audience presumably already familiar with the gross anatomy of the brain. The fifth edition (1896) included about 150 pages of systematic comparative neurology of lower vertebrates in addition to a considerably fuller treatment of the mammalian brain. The fifth edition differed from the earlier ones in that especial attention was devoted to the functional significance of the parts described, and the further development of this treatment in the seventh edition constitutes perhaps its most valuable feature. In the seventh edition both parts are still further enlarged and published in separate volumes, of which the first devoted to man and other mammals appeared in 1904, and the second devoted to lower vertebrates in 1908.
The first volume of the seventh edition is designed to serve as a textbook for medical students and practitioners and includes concise and very valuable summaries of the more important results of pathological and experimental anatomy as well as the normal functions of the parts. It includes also many new and very helpful illustrations.
The first four chapters are devoted to general neurological questions, — history and general methods of investigation of the nervous system, the anatomical and pathological consideration of ganglion cell and nerve in general and the neurone doctrine. Then follows a brief chapter on the development of the brain, after which the systematic treatment of the structure of the human spinal cord and brain is begun.
Emphasis is laid throughout on the conduction paths as giving the key to structure. In view of the functional standpoint chosen, it is surprising that the cranial nerve components are not grouped into functional systems and each of these co-ordinated with its cerebral center as an introduction to the anatomy of the medulla oblongata. Such a treatment is simple and didactically much preferable to the traditional method of describing successive levels as if these were natural segmental units. In fact the real morphological units tend to show longitudinal arrangements, as Edinger's numerous synthetic diagrams make very plain. The chief value of a series of figures of successive cross-sections through the oblongata (which is very great indeed) is in giving the orientation of these units and their peripheral connections.
This standpoint is in fact adopted in the second volume. The value of these concepts in the elucidation of the human medulla oblongata is quite as great as iu the case of the lower vertebrates, upon which most of the literature on this subject has hitherto been based ; and it is to be regretted that the author did not avail himself of his unique opportunity
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of giving his wider circle of medical readers the benefits of the same functional analysis which he has himself used in writing for the smaller circle of comparative anatomists in the second volume.
The gustatory system is treated (p. 146) in the way suggested; but not altogether satisfactorily. The common center of this system is the nucleus of the fasciculus solitarius (designated nucleus terminalis on Fig. 82). The facial and glossopharyngeal components of this system are correctly drawn. The vagal component which undoubtedly exists in man as in lower vertebrates (from taste buds in the pharynx and epiglottis) is mentioned in the text but not included in the figure. The fasciculus solitarius and its nucleus are figured as extending forward in undiminished volume from the facial level to that of the trigeminus, where they receive a gustatory component from the ramus lingualis trigemini. The prefacial fasciculus solitarius probably does not exist; if it does occur in man, it is certainly very much smaller than the postfacial portion. Fascicles of fibers have several times been described passing from the trigeminus root to the fasciculus solitarius. These, in my opinion, are fibers of tactile sense, probably concerned with the correlation of tactile and gustatory impressions from the mouth. I have described such a connection in fishes where a prefacial fasciculus solitarius is certainly absent. That gustatory impressions do not enter the brain by the trigeminus root is supported by the whole weight of comparative anatomy and by the best clinical and pathological observations on man after the destruction of the Gasserian ganglion.
Turning now to the second volume, we find that nearly one-half of its pages are devoted to the rhombencephalon and its peripheral connections. The treatment of these subjects has been revolutionized as compared with previous editions and even with the first volume of this edition. The first three chapters, devoted to the peripheral nerves and their development, were elaborated especially for this edition by Professor Froriep.
This discussion takes its departure from the now classic fourfold subdivision of the peripheral nervous system into somatic afferent and efferent and visceral afferent and efferent systems. The branchial nerves are classed with the visceral systems. Aside from the first and second nerves, two special sensory systems are also recognized, the acustico-lateral and gustatory. The morphological association of the nerves of the lateral lines with the VIII cranial nerve is on p. 11 incorrectly credited to the present writer, whereas the principle had been clearly stated many times
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before both by students of the peripheral and central connections of the cranial nerves. Mayser, in 1882, even went so far as to call these lateral line roots anterior and posterior auditory roots, on the basis of their central connections alone. E dinger recognizes that the acustico-lateral system stands in close relations with the somatic afferent system (p. 13) ; nevertheless he is unwilling to admit the genetic connection of the two systems of nerves (p. 11), thus ignoring or rejecting a large body of recent work both physiological (Parker) and anatomical (Johnston and others).
On page 12 the gustatory organs are classified as visceral receptors in conformity with recent American writers, and the cutaneous taste buds of certain teleosts are definitely mentioned as belonging to this system. But on page 90 the only physiological evidence Imown to me that these cutaneous organs of fishes have a gustatory function (my paper on the organ and sense of taste in fishes published in the Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission in 1904) is rejected.
The eye-muscle nerves are regarded as somatic motor and the evidence for this, we are told (p. 13), lies exclusively in their central relations — a remarkable statement in view of the fact that the eye-muscles are the only muscles of the head, except the hypoglossus musculature, which arise from typical somites, or segmented dorsal mesoderm, like the somatic muscles of the trunk.
The statement (p. 64) that in cyclostomes the vagus contains somatic motor elements which in higher animals are represented in the hypoglossus; ascribed to Johnston, does not accurately represent his position. On page 90 it is said that the IX cranial is a well-defined separate nerve only above the fishes. That it is quite as distinct in fishes as in higher animals is shown by the work of many anatomists from the days of Stannius until now. In the carp the terminal nucleus of its sensory root has, moreover, a special lobe, the lobus glossopharyngei, situated between the lobus vagi and the lobus facialis.
The various functional systems of components of the cranial nerves are clearly recognized and their embryological development sketched, but no satisfactory figure of their mutual relations is given. The diagram of the selachian nerves (Fig. 5) is very schematic and incomplete; and in fact the exact composition of the selachian nerves is less accurately known (pending the completion of Strong's examination) than that of several other species of fishes and amphibians (Petromyzon, Gadus, Pleuronectes, Menidia, Eana, Amblystoma, etc.), of which good figures are available.
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The medulla oblongata is divided into functional regions or zones corresponding with the functional systems of peripheral nerve components and the fundamental value of these central functional units is clearly recognized (pp. 82 to 90), in this following the pioneer work of Strong, Kingsbury and later American students. This treatment is totally different from that of the earlier editions, and marks an advance which puts this part of Edinger's book ten years ahead of any other European work on the central nervous system. We have reached the point in cerebral anatomy where the medulla oblongata of vertebrates can be given a tolerably clear-cut morphological analysis based on functional relations. Much remains to be done here ; but the general morphological plan of the rhombencephalon can be laid down more precisely , than that of any other part of the brain.
Edinger's papers contain frequent references to the ganglion isthmi, but nowhere has he given a clear account of its structure and connections. The present work is even less satisfactory in this matter; several different structures in different animals are included under the name, with no adequate description of any one of them. On page 111 it is described in general and regarded as an association apparatus. The structure identified as ganglion isthmi in Petromyzon Professor Johnston informs me is an integral part of the tuberculum acusticum, being present in the whole length of that organ, and its efferent tract is a part of the primitive lemniscus system. In teleosts it is said (p. 135) to be feebly developed and to lie caudad of the "Eindenknoten" of Mayser (nucleus visceralis cerebelli of Johnston, superior secondary gustatory nucleus of Herrick). The latter structure is said to be totally lacking in most other vertebrates, and to be a differentiation from the frontal pole of the sensory trigeminus nucleus (p. 111). Accordingly, Edinger does not accept the conclusion of the American writers that the Eindenknoten is a secondary visceral nucleus, though he describes (p. 91) and figures its broad connection with the visceral centers of the oblongata through the "secondary vagus bundle" of Mayser and gives no precise account of any trigeminus connection whatever. As a matter of fact, the sensory trigeminus connections are very small or absent in all forms, though the connection with the motor V nucleus is always extensive. Furthermore, the size of the Eindenknoten varies directly with the size of the primary visceral sensory nuclei of the oblongata (and the range of this variation is extremely wide in teleosts), whereas it is independent of similar variations in the size of the primary trigeminal centers. This evidence, while greatly strengthened
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by recent American work, goes back to tlie time of Mayser in 1882, and is in fact mentioned by Edinger himself (p. 91).
Throughout the description of the brain Edinger makes the valuable distinction between the structures which are indigenous to the several regions (Eigenapparat) and the conducting elements which come into them from without (Verhindungs-apparat) . This distinction might advantageously be more generally emphasized, both in research and instruction. Critical examination reveals many cases of loose description and confused terminology which sometimes baffle the experienced neurologist and make the work unnecessarily difficult for a beginner. Edinger's neglect of the BNA terms, even in the mammalian volume, gives the impression that it arises not so much from a desire to correct evident defects in that system as from mere carelessness. Failure to redraw old. figures so as to bring their terminology into harmony with that of the newer ones and the text is also a source of much confusion, and sometimes of positive error.
For instance, in the description of the olfactory apparatus there are many inconsistencies. On page 252 of Vol. 2 the name lobus olfactorius is applied to the whole evagination surrounding the rhinocoele, and the name lobus parolfactorius to the whole basal olfactory area caudad of this. The term bulbus olfactorius is applied on page 253 only to the superficial formatio bulbaris (glomerular formation), but on the same page the tractus olfactorius is said to arise from the caudal and lateral pole of the round bulbus, so that one must infer that here the author includes the mitral and granular cell la^'crs in addition to the glomerular layer in his bulbus, i. e., the whole primary olfactory center. On page 255 the lobus olfactorius is defined as the terminal station of the olfactory tracts of the second order. But in a half-dozen or more of the figures the bulbus, or primary olfactory center, is marked lobus olfactorius. The lobus olfactorius as a secondary olfactory center would seem to be the same as the lobus parolfactorius, as defined above. But later the lobus parolfactorius of birds, reptiles and mammals (also called tuberculum olfactorium) is located behind the lobus olfactorius and given a very special interpretation.
After many fluctuations of usage, the author now divides the olfactory fibers of the second order into two groups (p. 266), one of which he designates tr. bulbo-epistratici, the other tr. bulbo-corticales (dorsales, ventrales et laterales) . Since the secondary olfactory centers in which the latter fibers end should not all be called cortex, as we shall see beyond, it is
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preferable to retain the old usage and call all olfactory fibers of the second order tractus olfactorius (lateralis, medialis, epistriaticus, etc.), thus avoiding also the confusion of "bulbus" olfactorius in these compounds with "bulbus" as a synonym of medulla oblongata in similar compound names of tracts. Olfactory tracts of the third order arising in the secondary olfactory area may then be named in accordance with the usual custom after their terminal nuclei, such as tractus olfacto-habenularis, tr, olfacto-corticalis, etc.
Edinger in all of his writings has laid great stress on the constancy of the structure and fiber connections of the habenula throughout the whole vertebrate series. The forebrain connections of the habenula of reptiles and amphibians are in reality more nearly like those of mammals than Edinger's own acount would indicate. He applies the name taenia thalami to the stria medullaris, not adopting the recommendation of the BNA that the word taenia be applied to the line of union of the membranous roof with the massive side wall of the brain and never to a tract. In Vol. 1 he describes in the mammalian nervous system a "nucleus taeniae" as a part of the secondary olfactory area between the bulbus olfactorius and the optic chiasma which he terms in different places variously, basal grey, baso-medial grey, area olfactoria, spatium olfactorium, lobus olfactorius, lobus parolfactorius and tuberculum olfactorium. The figures show that this nucleus lies really behind the lamina terminalis in the grey surrounding the preoptic recess and dorsally of the optic chiasma and is the same as the nucleus supraopticus of Kolliker's precise descriptions. From it arises the ventral component of the stria medullaris, or tr. olfacto-habenularis. This tract is in mammals always designated by Edinger as a part of the taenia thalami and in the lower vertebrates sometimes in this way and sometimes as tr. olfacto-habenularis. In mammals the stria medullaris is joined by a tract from the cerebral cortex via the columna fornicis (tr. cortico-habenularis) and by fibers connecting with the middle part of the thalamus (tr. habenulodiencephalicus), and both of these tracts are present in reptiles and amphibians. In the frog my own examination shows that the tr. cortico-habenularis arises in two places, one part from the dorso-medial cortex and a much larger part from the occipital pole of the hemisphere. Edinger has incorrectly designated the latter part tr. olfacto-habenularis ("taenia") and its place of origin nucleus taeniae (Fig. 189 of Vol. 2), notwithstanding the fact that it lies far laterally in the pallial part of the hemisphere and not in the basal grey about the preoptic recess. The
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presence of a true nucleus taeniae in the frog in the typical position in the baso-medial grey is ignored by Edinger, which is the more surprising in view of the fact that this nucleus has been correctly described in the frog by Kappers, working in Edinger's own laboratory. Kappers, however, follows Edinger in placing the nucleus taeniae in the occipital pole of the hemisphere, while he designates the true tr. olfacto-habenularis by the new and unnecessary name, tr. area-habenularis. On page 267 the same confusion of the ventro-medial nucleus taeniae with a nucleus in the ventro-lateral wall of the hemisphere is made by Edinger in the description of the reptile brain.
In the analysis of the forebrain, like that of the medulla oblongata, the first and second volumes are so different in both nomenclature and fundamental principles that one has difficulty in correlating them. Since it is here that the comparative method should be expected to yield its most valuable results, we shall examine these chapters of both volumes in some detail.
In the subdivision of the cerebral hemisphere as given in Vol. 1 (p. 286) some radical departures from common usage are noted. There are three primary subdivisions: (1) baso-medial grey, closely associated with the lamina terminalis and extending both forward to include parts adjacent to the lamina terminalis (paraterminal body of Elliot Smith) and backward to the anterior wall of the inf undibulum ; (2) basal ganglion, or corpus striatum; (3) pallium, or the "whole wall of the hemisphere vesicle." "Pallium" as thus defined is divided into two fundamental divisions. The pallium basale is the oldest part of the forebrain. Just what this includes is nowhere clearly stated. It is said in front to receive the olfactory nerves, and in the same paragraph it is identified with the "lobi olfactorii." From the figures and context I assume it to include the olfactory bulb and the parts of the ventral wall of the hemisphere immediately adjacent, perhaps as far back as the optic chiasma. It thus covers ventral ly the baso-medial grey and the corpus striatum. Dorsally of the basal pallium, in mammals forming the margin of the overlying roof of the forebrain and in some lower vertebrates forming the whole roof, is the pallium marginale, or hippocampal formation. The remainder of the wall of the forebrain vesicle is formed by neopallium. Elsewhere the term cortex is used apparently as synonymous with pallium in all of the senses given above.
Edinger adds, "Pallium basale (lobus olfactorius) and pallium marginale (formatio hippocampi) together have been called archipallium
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by Elliot Smith." This is a misquotation of Elliot Smith's writings so far as they are known to me. He applies the word rhinencephalon to the combined basal olfactory centers and hippocampus and limits the word archipallium to the hippocampus. Edinger's use of the terms pallium and cortex in Vol. 1, as applied to basal structures (in the olfactory bulb, "cortex olfactoria" over the lobus parolfactorius, etc.), is confusing and unfortunate, and it is to be hoped that it will not be generally adopted.
In Vol. 2 the most fundamental division of the brain separates the palseencephalon from the neencephalon. The latter includes what is generally designated pallium or cerebral cortex. It increases in amount as we ascend the vertebrate series and progressively effects more extensive connections with other parts of the brain. The palasencephalon is the basal mechanism of the brain and is relatively constant from the lowest to the highest vertebrates. The author even goes so far as to state in his introduction that from the most primitive vertebrates upward the palaeencephalic parts of the brain are quite as highly developed as are the corresponding parts in mammals. This statement as it stands is manifestly incorrect. What he intends us to understand is probably that, if we abstract from the brain the cortex cerebri and its dependencies, the remainder is relatively constant. But these cortical dependencies, such as the pyramidal tracts, cerebellar hemispheres, pars optica of the thalamus, etc., are not included in his topographic definition of the neencephalon, as might very advantageously be done.
The precise limits of the palreencephalon are variously given in different places. Confusion is produced at the start by the obscure statement (p. 243), "From the purely palaeencephalic anterior cerebral vesicle, the proencephalon, the neencephalic hemispheres evaginate, chiefly somewhat dorsally. The primitive anterior wall persists between them as the lamina terminalis." If this means that the lamina terminalis marks the boundary between the palseencephalon and the neencephalon, it would exclude the basal olfactory centers from the former. This, however, is clearly not the intent, for on page 249 the hemisphere in front of the lamina terminalis is divided into, (1) hyposph^erium, or palseencephalic portion containing the olfactory bulb, olfactory lobe (secondary olfactory centers) and corpus striatum, and (2) episphserium. The latter appears first in well-defined form in the Amphibia, and here in its simplest form is defined as a new formation which receives olfactory fibers of the third order from the lobus olfactorius, and not secondary
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olfactory fibers like the hyposphserium. This criterion is of small value, for in all vertebrates there are numerous undoubtedly palseencephalic centers which receive olfactory tracts of the third order, and on the other hand, there is good authority for the belief that some olfactory fibers of the second order reach the hippocampal formation, even in the higher vertebrates, including man. We read further, "The episphaerium is identical with the neencephalon" (p. 251), and "from the Reptilia onwards the expressions episphgerium and pallium are employed as identical" (p. 295).
This definition of pallium is quite different from that employed in the description of the mammalian brain in Vol. 1, where the whole wall of the f orebrain was called pallium ; but the reader is not advised of this fact. The usage of Vol. 2 is certainly preferable; for it accords with general practice and, though we have as yet no thoroughly satisfactory morphological definition of pallium, nevertheless in mammals, at least, it can be tolerably well described anatomically as the free part of the forebrain wall dorsally of the massive basal part, which was, I believe, the original use of the term. Pallium may be applied to the whole thickness of this dorsal wall, whether massive or membranous; cortex, on the other hand, should be applied only to the grey superficial layer of the massive wall. It might perhaps be permissible to speak of a cortex of the bulbus olfactorius, tuberculum olfactorium or other basal structures, but certainly the name pallium should not be applied to these basal structures. And I think it preferable on account of the traditional associations of the word to limit the application of the term cortex cerebri to the pallium.
The relations of the epistriatum of amphibians, reptiles and birds to the structure so named in fishes is obscure. It receives as we pass up the series from fishes to mammals fewer secondary olfactory fibers from the olfactory bulb and progressively more olfactory fibers of the third order from the "cortex olfactoria'* covering the olfactory lobe and parolfactory lobe, tr. olfacto-epistriaticus (cortico-epistriaticus of Edinger). In mammals its shrunken vestige is seen in the nucleus amygdalae, the taenia semicircularis containing the tr. olfacto-epistriaticus.
The lobus parolfactorius, like the epistriatum, has evidently been differentiated phylogenetically within the secondary olfactory area, but it receives in addition to the olfactory tracts other important tracts from the lower brain regions, of which one of the most characteristic is the tr. quinto-frontalis from the terminal nucleus of the nervus trigeminus.
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The lobus parolfactorius is a center of correlation for all of the sensory functions associated with the snout or muzzle, a combination of diverse sensory impressions which Edinger calls in the aggregate "oral sense." In birds it attains its greatest dimensions, and the tract from it to the epistriatum (tr. fronto-epistriaticus) is very large. In this tract functions other than olfactory evidently predominate, for the olfactory system is greatly reduced in birds. Since, then, the lobus parolfactorius is a correlation center for all of the senses connected with the snout and the act of mastication, this connection with the epistriatum suggests that the latter participates in the same functions.
The most important original contributions contained in this edition in my opinion are found in the chapters on the forebrain in the second volume. The problem of the phylogeny of the cortex cerebri is given a new phase by the suggestion that the archipallium arose, not as a purely olfactory center, but as an outgrowth of a center of correlation between olfactory and other afferent impressions from the snout in the parolfactory lobe and epistriatum. The penetration of secondary tactile, somffisthetic and other sensory systems into the forebrain for ease of correlation with the secondary olfactory centers was, accordingly, the point of departure for the evolution of the cerebral cortex. The author's studies on the phylogeny of the cortex and some interesting applications to comparative psychology with which the second volume closes are developed more at length in an address recently delivered and about to appear in English translation in the Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.
This work, particularly the second volume, represents very largely the work of Edinger's own laboratory, and the breadth of the field covered and great mass of detail presented give testimony to the immense labor involved. His figures are nearly all original, and the facts presented are mostly either new or personally verified by the author or his staff. This, which is the pre-eminent merit of the work, is at the same time the source of its greatest weakness, chief of which is, perhaps, a fondness for loose generalizations of an impressionistic sort which give the reader a broad view over the subject, but require so much qualification as soon as attention is directed to details as seriously to impair their value. The loose and variable use of descriptive names b'rings this defect into unfortunate prominence.
These defects are, it is true, to a large extent inherent in the nature of the subject. Comparative neurology has been and is extremely diffi
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cult because of the fragmentary nature of the mass of intricate detail and the lack of co-ordinating principles. At the present moment the science is in a transitional state growing out of the rapid elaboration of functional units in morphology, and the reformulation of old static anatomical elements in terms of these units must necessarily be a slow process. But this reformulation is well under way and the renaissance of comparative neurology has already come.
One should also bear in mind that in the preface of the first edition of his lectures Professor E dinger forewarned his readers that statements might sometimes be made in more dogmatic form than the facts at hand fully justify. No doubt too great advantage has at times been taken of this liberty. It is, however, true that this is one of the elements of Edinger's brilliant literary style which has had no small influence in popularizing the concepts of comparative neurology and emphasizing their great value to human neurologists. Because of the far-reaching influence which Edinger as a pioneer and notable exponent of the comparative point of view has exerted and will continue to exert I have chosen in this review to point out some of the imperfections of this book rather than to dwell exclusively on its obvious excellences, thus hoping to do a service to both reader and author, for Edinger's lectures will long continue to be, as they have been, a standard reference work for all neurologists.
C. Judson Herrick.
"Human Anatomy, including Structure and Development and Practical Considerations/ by Thomas Dwight, Carl A. Hamann, J. Playfair McMurrich, George A. Piersol and J. William White. With 1734 illustrations, of which 1522 are original and largely from dissections by John C. Heisler. Edited by George A. Piersol. Philadelphia and London : J. B. Lippincott Company, 1907. Price, $7.50. 2088 pages.
In this, the first complete text-book of human anatomy of any considerable importance written and produced in this country entirely by American authors, a distinct step in advance has been attained that must be gratifying to all American anatomists. We are no longer dependent upon England or Germany for a text-book of the first rank. Quain's Anatomy has been for many years the best standard work in English, and to equal or excel it is indeed a difficult task, yet we feel
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that this new work approaches its excellence in many respects. Piersol's Anatomy is the only American work which covers the same ground as does the Quain, including descriptive anatomy, histology, embryolog}% neurology and practical anatomy. The two anatomies are of about the same length, the Piersol containing a few more pages. In general arrangement, however, they differ in that in Quain the embryology, histology, descriptive anatomy and practical considerations are in separate volumes, while in the Piersol these subjects are treated for the most part in the sections devoted to the various systems of the body, and the whole bound in one volume. There are certain advantages and disadvantages in this scheme, but it serves the purpose somewhat needed in this country of emphasizing the fact that the field of anatomy is not limited merely to the dissection of the human body. Students in embryology or histology, however, may find it rather inconvenient to carry about such a large book when using only a small part.
In reviewing a book of this size, some 2088 pages, the reviewer can scarcely be expected to read every page, much less attempt to indicate either all its virtues or defects. But during the past winter I have had frequent occasion to consult the text, which has proved excellent and concise, while its use by a number of my students to their entire satisfaction indicates that it will soon be widely and extensively used in this country.
The editor points out in his preface that three chief considerations were in mind in the preparation of the work. (1) "The presentation of the essential facts of human anatomy in its broadest sense by a descriptive text which while concise should be sufficiently comprehensive to include all that is necessary for a thorough understanding not only of the gross appearances and relations of the various parts of the human body, but also of their structure and development." In this he has been assisted by several distinguished American teachers. Dr. Thomas Dwight has written the description of the skeleton including, along with the various bones, the joints and ligaments, certain anthropological data and statistics of sex differences. Prof. Dwight's numerous osteological contributions render him especially suited to deal with this section, which is quite complete, covering some 350 pages of carefully prepared text and clear-cut illustrations. Professor Dwight has also contributed the account of the gastro-pulmonary system and of the accessory organs of nutrition.
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Prof. J. Playf air McMurrich in his treatment of the muscular system has classified them upon a morphological basis; their embryological significance forming the guide for the arrangement in the following groups : I. The branchiometric muscles arising from the mesoderm of the branchial arches, including (a) trigeminal, (b) the facial, and (c) the vago-accessory with the trapezius and sterno-mastoid muscles. II. The metameric muscles, divided into two main groups, the axial and appendicular. The inclusion of the orbital muscles with the metameric axial musculature has not at present sufficient embryological support nor is there direct evidence that the hypoglossal musculature is metameric in origin. This classification is the most logical and satisfactory for a systematic text. The blood- and lymph-vascular systems were written by the same author.
Prof. Carl A. Hamann contributed the account of the eerebro-spinal nerves and sympathetic system. Dr. George A. Piersol has written the introduction, the histological and embryological paragraphs, as well as the account of the central nervous system.
There is thus combined in this one carefully written volume sufficient histology, embryology, neurology and gross anatomy to carry the medical student through these subjects. It is quite remarkable that the publishers are able to sell the volume for $7.50, which is less than one-half the cost of Quain's Anatomy. This very remarkable price will contribute much to the success of the book.
The second consideration, "adequate emphasis and explanation of the many and varied relations of anatomical details to the conditions claiming the attention of the physician and surgeon," has been adequately treated by Dr. J. William White, a surgeon and teacher of anatomy. The various sections dealing with these practical applications of anatomy are scattered in their appropriate places throughout the book and are both helpful and valuable to the student, diverting to a certain extent his attention to that side of anatomy with which he must become more familiar later on in his medical course.
The great number of original illustrations gives distinct character to the book. It must have been an enormous task to have executed such a large number of drawings, and one wonders if it would not have been better to have drawn more upon those already in existence, of which there are many of equal excellence. To one familiar with the wonderful illustrations in the atlases of Sobotta, Toldt and Spalteholz there is a feeling of disappointment that the figures in Piersol have not greater clearness and depth. This is possible even in text figures, and
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that, too, without departing from faithful records of actual dissections. The details in many of the figures, especially at the periphery, are not carefully worked out and often are mere smudges, as in Figs. 506, 507, 570, 590, 598, 619, and many others. Again, in many of the figures illustrating the blood vessels the muscular and skeletal background lacks the clearness and detail to enable one easily to recognize the relations. The figures of the peripheral nerves are subject to even greater criticism. The diagrams of the plexuses and anastomoses are quite too crude, while the nerves in many of the more elaborate figures are so indistinct that often only by very close and careful attention can one identify the smaller branches (Figs. 1082, 1079, 1084, 1087, 1088, 1090, 1137, 1138, etc.), while the background and relations are often miserable. One depends greatly on figures when looking hastily for small points, and I have often found it necessary to turn to figures in other books, not because the views are not well chosen, but because the artist has often failed to draw with the eye of an anatomist.
The day has come, I think, when American anatomists can no longer neglect the BNA terminolog3^ Its partial use in the last edition of Morris by McMurrich is a step in the right direction, but would have been more effective had it been used as completely as in Barker's translation of Spalteholz. The question of the Latin or of the English translation is perhaps unimportant, but as the BNA is international, it would seem advisable to adhere strictly to the Latin terms. The editor in his preface states that he gave very earnest consideration to the question of terminology, and concluded that the retention for the most part of the terms in use by the English-speaking anatomists and surgeons would best contribute to the usefulness of the book. Many of the BNA terms appear in the text as synonyms having a special type. The changes from our English terminology to the BNA are neither so great nor so numerous as to introduce much confusion, and as the BNA norm is used it would have added to the book had this terminology also been used throughout with the occasional use of the English synonym in parenthesis. The use of anterior for ventral and posterior for dorsal, for example, has led to much confusion and should be discarded.
We regret that more references to the literature have not been added. Such references are extremely valuable to the student, and as an introductory method into the literature serve as a distinct educational feature. The anatomy as a whole is a decided success, and the editor and his collaborators are to be congratulated for giving us a truly first-class text-book. W. H. Lewis.
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NOTES AND APPOINTMENTS.
Eetirement of Professor Simon Henry Gage from the Chair of Histology and Embryology in Cornell University.
At the end of the academic year, June, 1908, Professor S. H. Gage of Cornell University took advantage of the provision in the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, which gives a retiring allowance after 25 years of professorial service. He was appointed instructor in Histology and Embryology at Cornell in 1878, assistant professor in 1881, associate in 1889, and full professor in 1895; he has thus been actively engaged in university instruction for 30 years. As this is, as far as we know, the first instance of a retirement under the Carnegie Foundation, by a man in the prime of life for the purpose of scientific research, it is an event of importance not exclusively for the development of anatomy in this country, but in the wider field of the development of scientific medicine. The establishment of the system and its use for the sake of research represent a real demand for more opportunities for scientific investigation.
It seemed to Professor Gage that perhaps he could be of greater service to his institution and to others by giving up teaching and devoting himself for the remaining years of active life to the completion of some of the investigations begun during his teaching career; for, as teachers well appreciate, the time for working out difficult investigations is altogether inadequate in the college vacations and during an occasional sabbatical leave. It can be readily seen that the retirement of a teacher in charge of a department at the age of 57 for the purposes of investigation might give rise to an attitude of disapproval on the part of the institution with which he was connected. But far from this, the President and Trustees of Cornell University, while they express great regret at the loss of an efficient .teacher in the regular instruction of the university, showed their sympathy and hearty appreciation of the value of Professor Gage's work for the university in a most substantial form.
He was made Professor of Histology and Embryology, Emeritus, and there was placed under his sole charge for the purposes of his investigations a fully equipped, well lighted laboratory. The equipment in
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eludes microscopes, microtomes, and the apparatus needed for w'ork in histology and embryology ; a full outfit for gross- and micro-photography ; a projection microscope, a dark room for drawing and photography; and also about 15,000 slides of serial sections, histologic and embrA'ologic material which he has been collecting for the last ten years for the purposes of investigation. However, space and means for instruction and investigation in the teaching department remained intact and included among other things an abundance of microscopes and microtomes, a photographic room with full outfit, a projection microscope for classroom demonstrations and another in a special room for study and drawing. Also over 28,000 permanent microscopic preparations in histology and serial sections of the central nervous system and of embryos.
The University Trustees also promised an annual appropriation for the purchase of apparatus and specimens and for the ordinary running expenses of a laboratory; and granted him the privilege of occupying his house on the campus under the same conditions as an active teaching professor. These substantial grants were accompanied by a note stating that "it is the ardent desire of the university to encourage investigation," and while regret was expressed that the instructing staff of the University was to lose a devoted teacher, gratification was felt that Professor Gage was to retain his connection with the university and carry on investigations within its walls.
In making the retiring allowance the Carnegie Foundation showed its liberal spirit in the following communication from President Pritchett: "In communicating this action the Executive Committee desires that you [President Schurman] will extend to Professor Gage the assurance of the high esteem which the Executive Committee has of his work in research and their best wishes for many years of fruitful work in his chosen field."
As Professor Gage is giving up active teaching it will not be out of place to mention his great success as a teacher. During the past 30 years, he has personally instructed in the laboratory about 2,000 students. Many of these students have continued their scientific activity and have published scientific papers. To illustrate the wide scope of the students who have come under Professor Gage's influence, or, as he would put it, whom he has had the good fortune to instruct, the following list is added :
Dr. Hermann M. Biggs. — University and Bellevue Medical College. On Board of Directors of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.
290 The Anatomical Record.
Donaldson Bodine, Ph.D. — Professor of Zoology, Wabash College.
Samuel H. Burnett, M.S., D.V.M. — Assistant Professor in Comparative Pathology in the New York State Veterinary College.
Dr. Fred C. Bush. — Professor of Physiology, University of Buffalo, N. Y.
Ealph V. Chamberlain, Ph.D. — Professor of Biology, University of Utah.
E. M. Chamot, Ph.D. — Assistant Professor of Sanitary Chemistry, Cornell University.
Mrs. Anna Botsford Comstock, B.S. — Lecturer in Cornell University; Artist and Author, Ithaca.
Dr. Henry P. De Forest. — Professor in Post-Graduate Medical College, New York.
E. J. Durand, Ph.D. — Instructor in Botany, Cornell University.
E. P. Felt, Ph.D.— State Entomologist, Albany, N. Y.
Margaret C. Ferguson, Ph.D. — Professor of Botany, Wellesley College, Mass.
Dr. Pierre A. Fish, D.Sc, D.V.M. — Professor of Physiology and Pharmacology, New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y.
Louis Agassiz Fuertes, A.B. — Scientific Artist, especially birds.
Mrs. Susanna Phelps Gage, Ph.B. — Investigator, Ithaca, N. Y.
William A. Hilton, Ph.D. — Pomona College, Cornell University, Histology and Embryolog}^
Prof. J. A. Holmes. — University of North Carolina; State Geologist North Carolina; in charge of U. S. Geological Survey for testing fuels and structural materials.
Grant S. Hopkins, B.S., D.V.M., Ph.D. — Professor of Anatomy in New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca.
L. 0. Howard, Ph.D. — United States Entomologist, Washington, D. C.
Ida H. Hyde, Ph.D. — Professor of Physiology, University of Kansas.
Dr. W. H. Jordan. — Director of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.
Dr. A. T. Kerr. — Professor of Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, Ithaca, N. Y.
B. F. Kingsbury, Ph.D., M.D. — Professor of Histology and Embryology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Professor Gage's successor.
William C. Krauss, B.S., M.D. — Physician and Scientific Writer.
S. E. Meek, Ph.D. — Investigator in Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 111.
The Anatomical Eecord. 291
A. D. Macgallivray, Ph.D. — Assistant Professor of Entomology, Cornell University.
Dr. Eobert 0. Moody. — Associate Professor of Anatomy, University of California.
Mrs. Agnes Claypole Moody, Ph.D. — University of California (Wife of Dr. Moody).
Dr. V. A. Moore. — Director of New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca, N. Y.
Dr. Burton D. Myers. — Professor of Anatomy, University of Indiana.
J. G. Needham, Ph.D. — Assistant Professor of Limnology, Cornell University.
H. W. Norris, Ph.D. — Professor of Zoology, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa.
Dr. Leonard Pearson. — State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania; Professor of Medicine and Dean of the Veterinary Department of Pennsylvania.
Effie A. Eead, Ph.D. — Author of Olfactory Apparatus, Journal of Anatomy, Washington.
J. E. Eice, B, S. — Professor of Poultry Husbandry, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
W. W. Eowlee. — Professor of Botany, Cornell University.
Prof. M. V. Slingerland. — Entomologist, Cornell Experimental Station.
Theobald Smith, M.D., LL.D. — Professor of Comparative Pathology, Harvard.
Prof. H. E. Summers. — Entomologist, Ames, la.
Dr. E. J. Terry. — Professor of Anatomy, Washington University, St. Louis.
Prof. M. B. Thomas. — Professor of Botany, Wabash College, Ind.
William Trelease, S.D., LL.D. — Director of Missouri Botanical Garden.
Dr. Charles G. Wagner. — Superintendent of the State Hospital for the Insane, Binghamton, N. Y.
L. B. Walton, Ph.D. — Professor of Biology, Kenyon College, Ohio.
C. D. White. — Paleobotanist, United States Geological Survey.
Dr. Wm. A. White. — Superintendent United States Insane Hospital, Washington.
Dr. J. M. Wilson. — Histology and Embryology in St. Louis University.
H. H. Wing, M.S. — Professor of Animal Husbandry, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
One especial feature of Professor Gage's class work came from his thorough understanding of optical apparatus, which made it very natural
293 The Anatomical Eecord.
that he should begin his course with a few periods devoted to a study of the principles involved in the construction of the microscope and the character of the image secured by it. It also made it very natural that he should develop the use of the projection apparatus in his lectures in a most effective manner. He has the reputation of being a very pleasing lecturer. Professor Gage has seen the development of microscopic technique ; he began his work without paraffin or celloidin sections, or microtomes or aniline dyes. He has not only made himself a master of technique, but, what is quite different, has the power of training the men about him to become excellent technicians. This skill has brought to him many special students; for example, teachers of biology, physicians, Government employees, specialists in botany, chemistry, entomology, medicine, nature study, veterinary medicine and zoology, all of whom came because they could get training in microscopic work. Everyone who has taught histology is indebted to Professor Gage for his publications on technique. His suggestions for class work are always feasible, and are so carefully worked out that they can be readily followed.
The following is a list of Professor Gage's contributions and addresses. It makes one wish to extend congratulations to Professor Gage and to Cornell University that he has now a full opportunity for research while yet in the prime of life.
With Dr. Wilder, anatomical technology.
The microscope, and introduction to microscope methods, and to histology, 1st ed., 1881, 10th ed., 1908. Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y.
Muscular tissue in Buck's Eef . Hand Book Med. Sciences.
The lymphatic system. Buck's Eef. Hand Book Med. Sciences.
The lake and brook lampreys of New York. The Wilder Book.
Life history of the toad. New York State Nature Study Leaflets, 1898-1900.
With Dr. Kingsbury, vertebrate histology. 1899. Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y,
1878-1879. The ampulla of Vater and the pancreatic ducts in the cat. Amer. Quart. Micr. Journal, vol. i.
1879. The inter-articular ligaments of the head of the ribs in the cat. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc, vol. xxviii.
1882. Observations on the fat-cells and connective-tissue corpuscles of Necturus. Amer. Soc. Micr. Proc, vol. iv.
1883. Pharyngeal respiration in the soft-shelled turtles. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. xxxii ; and in W. K. Parker's Mammalian Descent.
The Anatomical Eecord. 293
1885. The limitations and value of histological investigation. Address Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Section of Microscopy and Histology, 1.
1886. Amoeboid movement in the nucleus of the white blood corpuscles of Necturus. Science, vol. vii, p. 14G.
1887. Microscopical tube-length. Information from manufacturers which has led to the adoption of a nearly uniform tube-length.
1888. The form and size of the red blood corpuscles of adult and larval lamprey eels. N. Y. Med. Jour., xlviii, Proc. Amer Micr. Soc, X, 1889.
1889. With S. P. Gage. Staining and permanent preservation of histological elements isolated by means of caustic potash and nitric acid. First publication of a method for permanent preservation of caustic potash preparations. Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc, xi.
1891. Life history of the vermillion spotted newt, Diemyctylus, This paper demonstrated that the red form was simply a stage, not a variation. Amer. Naturalist, vol. xxv.
1892. Comparative physiology of respiration. Address before the section of Biology, Amer. Assoc. Proceedings, xli.
It was shown in this that in combined respiration, i. e., part aquatic, part aerial, the aquatic serves mainly to rid the organism of COg and the aerial to supply 0.
1895. The processes of life revealed by the microscope, a plea for physiological histology. Address as President Amer. Micr. Soc, Proceedings, vol. xvii, and Eeport of Smithsonian Institution, 1896.
1896. Zoology as a factor in mental culture. National Ed. Assoc, 35th annual meeting.
1898. Transformation of the brook lamprey (Lampetra wilderi) and parasitism among lampreys.
In this paper it was shown that the brook lampreys are never parasitic, although having all the structures therefor the same as the lake or sea lamprey. It was suggested that they have "reformed," ceased to be parasitic. Proc. Amer. Adv. Sc.
1898. Eelation of the ureters and the great veins in the cat. Proc. Amer. Anatomists.
1899. The importance and the promise in the study of the domestic animals. Address Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc. Section of Zoology.
1899. Some laboratory apparatus. Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc. (xxi). In this paper are figured and described the trays for ribbons of sections and for slides devised in 1897.
294 The Anatomical Eecord.
1900. Development of the lungs in the toad and tree-toads. It was shown that the lungs develop as a single solid proton, becoming forked and hollow in larval life, but not opening into the pharynx till during the transformation period. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc, xlix.
1904, 5, 6, 7, 8. Glycogen in the nervous system. Proceedings of the Association of American Anatomists.
1906. The origin and development of the projection microscope. Proceedings of the Amer. Micr. Soc, Presidential address.
Besides the above there are forty to fifty small papers on various subjects, many of them methods in microscopy and histology.
The Anatomical Record. 395
Announcement of the Twenty-fourth Session of the Association of American Anatomists.
The twenty-fourth session of the Association of American Anatomists will be held in the Anatomical Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University during the week beginning December 27, 1908, and ending January 2, 1909, in affiliation with the American Association for the Advancement of Science and other Affiliated Scientific Societies. The definite dates for this meeting, details concerning rates, headquarters for the Association, etc., will be given in the preliminary program.
Members of this Association desiring to present papers or give demonstrations should notify the Secretary at a date as early as possible, in any event, not later than December loth. A prompt reply will enable the Secretary to print and distribute a preliminary program some days before the meeting, and to comply with a request received from Dr. L. 0. Howard, to have the program of this Association printed in the general program of all the societies meeting at this time and place. Demonstrations have, for a number of 3^ears, formed so prominent a part of the program that their desirability has been well established. It is thought that they might be made more effective if a definite program of demonstrations could be arranged, and a definite hour assigned to each demonstration. This cannot be done unless members will notify the Secretary at an early date of their desire to give a demonstration, giving title, and mentioning space and apparatus needed.
The limited time at the disposal of the Association for the reading of papers and the usual fullness of the program make it desirable that the papers presented be abridged as much as possible. With the ready means now at the disposal of this Association for the publication of papers, it would seem desirable that, so far as possible, the communication be given in the form of full abstracts, the members relying on an early publication for the full papers. Members are urged to bear this in mind in preparing communications.
It is hoped that a general discussion may be arranged for this meeting. The reading of papers will begin promptly after the first meeting is called to order. The business meeting will be held the second afternoon of the session, otherwise the afternoons are reserved for demonstrations.
296 The Anatomical Eecord.
Members are invited to propose for membership in this Association persons eligible thereto. The necessary information regarding eligibility and the manner of proposing members is contained in Article V of the constitution, which reads: "Candidates for membership must be persons engaged in the investigation of anatomical or cognate sciences and shall be proposed in writing to the Executive Committee by two members, who shall accompany the recommendation by a list of the candidate's publications, together with references. The election shall take place in open meeting, a two-thirds vote being necessary." Application blanks may be obtained from the Secretary, and when filled out may be returned to him, who will present the same to the Executive Committee for consideration.
Members with dues in arrears are requested to meet their obligations at an early date. In view of the fact that annual dues of members ot this Association include subscription to The American Journal of Anatomy and to The Anatomical Eecord, now published by the Wistar Institute of Anatomy, it becomes eminently desirable that members in arrears pay their dues, in order that the account of this Association with the Wistar Institute, for the present fiscal year, may be closed.
Members are requested to consult the list of members with titles and addresses found in this issue of The Anatomical Eecord to see whether their name, title, and address are correctly given. If not, the Secretary requests that he be communicated with at an early date, and the necessary correction indicated.
G. Carl Huber. Secretary-Treasurer,
1330 Hill Street, Ann Arbor, Mich.
The Anatomical Eecord. 297
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN ANATOMISTS Constitution, Officers and List of Members
Constitution.
article i.
Section 1. The name of the Society shall be the "Association of American Anatomists."
Section 2. The purpose of the Association shall be the advancement of anatomical science.
ARTICLE II.
The officers of the Association shall consist of a President, two VicePresidents, and a Secretary, who shall also act as Treasurer. The officers shall be elected by ballot every two years.
ARTICLE III.
The management of the affairs of the Association shall be delegated to an Executive Committee, consisting of seven members, including the President and Secretary, ex-officio. One member of the Executive Committee shall be elected annually.
ARTICLE IV.
The Association shall meet annually, the time and place to be determined by the Executive Committee.
ARTICLE V.
Section 1. Candidates for membership must be persons engaged in the investigation of anatomical or cognate sciences and shall be proposed in writing to the Executive Committee by two members, who shall accompany the recommendation by a list of the candidate's publications, together with the references. The election shall take place in open meeting, a two-thirds vote being necessary.
Section 2. Honorary members may be elected from those not American who have distinguished themselves in anatomical research.
298 The Anatomical Record.
AETICLE VI.
The annual dues shall be five dollars. A member in arrears for dues for two years shall be dropped by the Secretary at the next meeting of the Association, but may be reinstated, at the discretion of the Executive Committee, on payment of arrears.
ARTICLE VII.
Section 1. Five members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.
Section 2. Any change in the constitution of the Association must be presented in writing at one meeting in order to receive consideration and be acted upon at the next meeting; due notice of the proposed change to be sent to each member at least one month in advance of the meeting at which such action is to be taken.
Section 3. The ruling of the Chairman shall be in accordance with "Roberts' Eufes of Order."
Orders Adopted by the Assoctation".
Newly elected members must qualify by payment of dues for one year within thirty days after election.
The maximum limit of time for the reading of papers shall be twenty minutes.
The Secretary and Treasurer shall be allowed his traveling expenses and the sum of $10 toward the payment of his hotel bill, at each session of the Association.
That the Association discontinue the separate publication of its proceedings, and that the American Journal of Anatomy be sent to each member of the Association, on payment of his annual dues, this journal to publish the proceedings of the Association, including an abstract of the papers read.
Contributors of papers are requested to furnish the Secretary with abstracts within a fortnight after the meeting.
OFFICERS.
President.. James Platfair McMurrich.
First Y ice-President William S. Miller.
Second Vice-President Florence R. Sarin.
Secretary and Treasurer ...G. Carl Huber.
The Anatomical Eecord. 299
Executive Committee.
Charles S. Minot For term expiring in 1908.
Chaei.es R. Bardeen For term expiring in 1909.
Thomas G. Lee For term expiring in 1910.
Simon H. Gage For term expiring in 1911.
Robert R. Bensley For term expiring in 1912.
Committees. Member of the Committee of Arrangements of the International Congress of
Anatomy for 1910. Charles S. Minot, with Franklin P. Mall, alternate.
American Members of the International Committee on Reformation of the
Myological 'Nomenclature.
J. Playfair McMurrich, Ross G. Harrison.
Delegate to the Council of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Simon H. Gage.
Member of Smithsonian Committee on the Table at Naples. George S. Huntington.
On Revision of the Constitution. G. Carl FIuber, Henry H. Donaldson, Robert R. Bensley.
Honorary Members.
S. Ramon y Cajal Madrid, Spain.
John Cleland Glasgow, Scotland.
John Daniel Cunningham Edinburgh, Scotland.
Camillo Golgi Pavia. Italy.
Oscar Hertwig Berlin, Germany.
Alexander Macallister Cambridge, England.
A. Nicolas Paris, France.
L. Ranvter Paris, France.
Gtistav Retzhts StocJyholm, Sweden.
Carl Toldt Vienna, Austria.
Sir William Turner .Edinburgh, Scotland.
Wilhelm Waldeyer Berlin, Germany.
MEMBERS. Addison, William Henry Fitzgerald. B. A.. M. B., Demonstrator of Histology
and Embryology. Medical Department, University of Pennsylvania, S92S
Pine Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Allen, Bennet Mills, Ph. D., Instructor in Anatomy. University of Wisconsin,
SIO Muray Street, Madison, Wis. Allen, William F., A. M., Pacific Grove, California.
300 The Anatomical Eecord.
Allis, Edwakd Phelps, Jr., LL. D., Associate Editor of Journal of Morphology, Milwaukee, Wis., Palais de Garnoles, Mcntone, France.
Allison, Nathaniel, M. D., Instructor in Orthopedic Surgery, Washington University, Linmar Building, St. Louis, Mo.
Baetjeb, Walter Albert, A. B., Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md.
Baker, Frank, A. M., M. D., Ph. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department, University of Georgetown, 1728 Columbia Road, Washington, D. C.
Baldwin, Wesley Manning, Instructor in Anatomy, Cornell University Medical School, Stimson Hall, Ithaca, N. Y.
Bardeen, Charles Russell, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of Wisconsin, Science Hall, Madison, Wis.
Barker, Lewellys Franklin. M. D., Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, 6 E. Franklin Street, Baltimoie, Md.
Bates, Geor&e Andrew, M. S., Professor of Histology, Tufts College, Tufts College Medical School, Huntington Avenue, Boston, Mass.
Baumgartner, William J., A. M., Assistant Professor of Histology and Zoology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.
Bean, Robert Bennett, B. S., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical School, Manila, P. I.
Bell, Elexious Thompson, B. S., M. D., Assistant Professor of Anatomy, University of Missouri, Columbia Club, Columbia, Mo.
Bensley, Benjamin Arthur, Ph. D., Associate Professor of Zoology, University of Toronto, 316 Brunswick Avenue, Toronto, Canada.
Bensley, Robert Russell, A. B., M. B., Professor of Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
Bevan, Arthue Dean, M. D., Professor of Surgery, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago, 100 State Street, Chicago, III.
BiGELOW, Henry B., A. M., Ph. D., Assistant in Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Blair, Vilray Papin, A. M., M. D., Lecturer on Descriptive Anatomy and Demonstrator of Anatomy, Medical Department, Washington University, S729 Delmar Boulevard, St. Louis, Mo.
Blake, Joseph Augustus, A. B., M. D., Professor of Surgery, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 601 Madison Avenue, New York City, N. Y.
BoNNOT, Edmond, a. B., Assistant in Anatomy, University of St. Louis, Corner Grand and Caroline Streets, St. Louis, Mo.
Bbemer, John Lewis, M. D., Harvard Medical School, Itl6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.
Brickner, Samuel Max, A. M., M. D., Gynecologist to Mt. Sinai Hospital Dispensary (N. Y.) ; Special Student in Anatomy, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 136 W. 85th Street, New York City, N. Y.
The Anatomical Record. 301
Bright, J. Fulmer, M. D., Trofessor of Anatomy, Medical College of Virginia,
J/OS W. Grace Street, Richmond, Va. Brodel, Max, Associate rrofessor of Art as Applied to Medicine, Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. Brooks, William Allen, M. D., 167 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Browning, William, Ph. B., M. D., Professor of Diseases of the Mind and
Nervous System, Long Island College Hospital, 5-'/ Lefferts Place,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bruner, Henry Lane, Ph. D., Professor of Biology, Butler College, 360 South
Ritter Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind. Bunting. Charles Henry, B. S., M. D., Professor of Pathology, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Burrows, Montrose L, l^OS E. Biddle Street, Baltimore, Md. Campbell. William Francis, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Histology, Long Island College Hospital, 86 Green Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. Carpenter, Frederic Walton, Ph. D., Instructor in Zoology, University of
Illinois, 1013 West California Avenue, Vrbana, III. Carr, William Phillips. M. D.. Professor of Physiology, Medical Department,
Columbian University, l/fl8 L Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Child, Charles Manning, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Zoology, Hull
Zoological Laboratory, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Clapp, Cornelia Maria, Ph. D., Professor Zoology, Mount Holyoke College,
South Hadlcy, Mass. Clarke, Eliot Round, M. D., Assistant In Anatomy, .Tohns Hopkins Medical
School, 1537 North Broadway, Baltimore, Md. CoHOE, Benson A., A. B., M. D., Assistant Resident Physician, Johns Hopkins
Hospital, Baltimore, Md.
Coghill, George E., Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, Denison University, Chranville, Ohio.
Conant, William Merritt, M. D., Instructor In Anatomy in Harvard Medical School, Ji86 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Mass.
CoNKLiN. Edwin Grant, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.
CoRSON, Eugene Rollin, B. S., M. D., 11 Jones Street, East Savannah. Ga.
Craig, Joseph Davis. A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Albany Medical College, 12 Ten Broeck Street, Albany, N. Y.
Dandy, Walter E., A. B., Johns Plopkins Medical School, IJfl Jackson Place, Baltimore, Md.
Darrach, William, A. M., M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy and Instructor in Surgery, Columbia University, 107 West 55th Street, New York City, N. Y.
Davidson. Alvin, M. A., Ph. D., Professor of Biology, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
302 The Anatomical Eecord.
Dawburn, Robeet H. Mackay, M. D., Professor of Surgery and Anatomy, New York Polyclinic Medical School and Hospital, 105 W. Hth Street, New York City, N. Y.
Dean, Bashford, Ph. D., Professor of Vertebrate Zoology, Columbia University, New York City, Honorary Curator of Fishes, American Museum of Natural History, 20 W. S2nd Street, New York City, N. Y.
DeWitt, Lydia M., M. D., B. S., Instructor in Histology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Dexter, Franklin, M. D., l^S Marlborough Street, Boston, Mass.
DoDSON, John Milton, A. M., M. D., Professor of Medicine, Rush Medical College, 568 Washington Boulevard, Chicago, III.
Donaldson, Henry Herbert, Ph. D., D. Sc, Professor of Neurology, The Wistar Institute of Anatomy, Philadelphia, Pa.
Dunn, Elizabeth Hopkins, A. M., M. D., Associate in Anatomy, University of Chicago, Hull Anatomical Laboi-atory. Chicago, III.
Du Pree, Dan Hughes, B. S., 1717 Fairmount Avenue. Baltimore, Md.
Dwight, Thomas, M. D., LL. D., Parkman Professor of Anatomy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.
Eccles. Robert G., M. D., Professor Organic Chemistry, Brooklyn College of Pharmacy, 191 Dean Street, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Edwards. Charles Lincoln, Ph. D., Professor of Natural History, Trinity College, 89 Buckingham Street, Hartford, Conn.
Eigenmann, Carl H., Ph. D., Professor of Zoology. Indiana University, Director of the Indiana University Biological Station, Bloomington, Ind.
Elliot, Gilbert M., A. M., INI. D., Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy, Medical School of Maine, 152 Main Street, Brunswick, Me.
Eedman, Charles Andrew, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Min/n.
EssicK, Charles Rhein, B.A., 1731 N. Broadway, Baltimore, Md.
Evans, Herbert McLean, B. S., Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimoi-e. Md.
Eycleshymer, Albert Chauncy, B. S., Ph. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department, University of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.
Ferris, Harry Burr, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department, Yale University, 395 Saint Ronan, New Haven, Conn.
FiscHELis, Philipp, M. D., Demonstrator of Hisitology and Embryology, Medico-Chirurgical College, 828 N. 5th Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Flint, Joseph Marshall, B. S., A. M., M. D., Professor of Surgery, Yale University, 311 Temple Street, New Haven, Conn.
Fox, Henry, Ph. D., Professor of Biology. Temple College, Philadelphia, 4440 N. 19th Street, Gcrmantown. Pa.
The Anatomical Eecord. 303
Fbost, Gilman Dubois, A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Dartmouth
Medical School, Hanover, N. H. Ferguson, Jeremiah Sweetser, M. Sc, M. I)., Instructor in Histology, Cornell
University Medical College, New York City, 330 W. 28th Street, New
York City, N. Y. Gage, Simon Henry, B. S., Professor of Histology and Embryology, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y. Gage, Mrs. Susannah Phelps, B. Ph., 4 South Avenue, Ithaca, N. Y. Gallaudet, Bern Budd, A. M., M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy and Instructor
of Surgery, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University,
Hotel Westminster, 115 E. IGth Street, New York City, N. Y. Gehbing, Norman J., A. B., M. D., 616 N. Aurora Street, Ithaca, N. Y. Gerrish, Frederick Henby, A. M., M. D., LL. D., Professor of Surgery,
Bowdoin College, 675 Congress Street, Portland, Me. Gilman, Philip Kingsworth, B. A., M. D., Assistant in Operative Surgery,
Medical School, Manila, P. I. Goettsch, Emil, B. S., Assistant in Anatomy, University of Chicago, 118
Maroon Heights, Chicago, III. Goodale, George Lincoln, A. M., M. D., Professor of Botany, Director of
Botanic Gardens, Harvard University, 5 Berkeley Street, Camhridge,
Mass. GowANS, Ephraim G., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, Utah. Greenman, Milton J., Ph. B., M. D., Director of the Wistur Institute of
Anatomy, 36t?i Street and Woodland Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. GuYER, Michael F., Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, University of Cincinnati,
Ohio, 564 Evanswood, Clifton, Cincinnati, Ohio. Hamann, Carl A., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department,
"Western Reserve University, 404 Osborne Building, Cleveland, Ohio. Hare, Earl R., A. B., M. D., Instructor in Anatomy, University of Minnesota,
327 14th Avenue, Minneapolis, Minn. Hardesty, Irving, A. B., Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Anatomy, University
of California, 2320 Hilgard Avenue, Berkeley, Cal. Harper, Eugene Howard, Ph. D., Instructor in Zoology, Northwestern University, 839 Milburn Street, Evanston, III. Harrison, Ross Granville, Ph. D., M. D., Professor of Comparative Anatomy,
Yale University, Managing Editor of the Journal of Experimental
Zoology, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Conn. Harvey, Basil Coleman Hyatt, A. B., M. B., Instructor in Anatomy, Hull
Anatomical Laboratory, University of Chicago, ^54 E. 60th Street,
Chicago, III. Hatai, Shinkishi, Ph. D., Associate in Neurology, Wistar Institute ot
Anatomy, Philadelphia, Pa.
304 The Anatomical Eecord.
Hathaway, Joseph H., A. M., M. D., Instructor in Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, J,20 Eddy Street, Ithaca, N. Y. Haynes, Ikving Samuel, Ph. B., M. D., Professor of Practical Anatomy,
Cornell University Medical College, 1125 Madison Avenue, New York
City. Hazen, Charles Morse, A. M., M. D., Professor of Physiology, Medical
College of Virginia, Richmond, Bon Air, Va. Heisler, John C, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medico-Chirurgical College,
Philadelphia, Pa., 3829 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Herrick, Charles Judson, Ph. D., Professor of Neurology, University of
Chicago (Co-Editor of Journal of Comparative Neurology), Laboratory
of Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Hertzler, Arthur E., A. M., M. D., Ph. D., Professor of General and Surgical
Pathology and Experimental Surgery, University Medical College.
Kansas City, Mo., 425 Argyle Building. Kansas City. Mo. Heuer, George Julius, B. S., Johns Hopkins Medical School, 152^ A • Broad icay, Baltimore, Md. Hewson, Addinell, a. M., jNI. D., Professor of Anatomy of Philadelphia
Polyclinic for Graduates of Medicine ; Secretary of Pennsylvania State
Anatomical Board, 2120 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Hill, Eben Clayton, A. B., M. D., Assistant in Anatomy, Johns Hopkins
Medical School, 2120 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, Md. Hill, Howard, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University Medical College,
Kansas City, Mo., ^25 Argyle Building. Kansas City. Mo. Hopkins, Grant Sherman, D. Sc, D. V. M., Professor of Veterinary Anatomy,
Cornell University, 125 Dryden Road, Ithaca, N. Y. Hodge, C. F., Ph. D., Professor of Biology, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Howard, Wm, T., M. D., Professor of Pathology, Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio. Hedlicka, Ales, M. D., Curator of the Division of Physical Anthropology,
Washington, D. C, United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. HuBER, G. Carl, M. D., Professor of Histology and Embryology, University of
Michigan, 1330 Hill Street, Ann Arior, Mich. Huntington, George S., A. M., M. D., D. Sc, LL. D., Professor of Anatomy,
Columbia University, 437 W. 59th Street, New York City, N. Y. Ingalls, N. WILLLA.M, M. D., InstructoT in Anatomy, Medical College,
Western Reserve University, St. Clair Avenue and East 9th Street.
Cleveland, Ohio. Jackson. Clarence M., M.S., M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Histology,
University of Missouri, 1201 Paquin Street, Columbia, Mo. Jatne, Horace, M. D., Ph. D., The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,
36th Street and Woodland Avenue. Philadelphia. Pa. Johnston, John B., Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Anatomy of the Nervous
System, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Minn.
The Anatomical Kecord. 305
Jordan, Harvey Ernest, Ph.D., Adjunct Professor of Anatomy (Histology and Embryology), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.
Keillek, William, L. R. C. P., and F. R. C. S. Ed., Professor of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Texas, Galveston, Tex.
Kelly, Howard Atwood, A. B., M. D., LL. D., Professor of Gynecological Surgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, UflS Eulaio Place, Baltimore, Md.
Kemp, George T. M. D., Ph. D., Professor of Physiology, University of Hlinois, Hotel Beardsley, Champaign, III.
Kerr, Abram T., B. S., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, Ithaca, N. Y.
Kingsbury, B. F., Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Physiologj-, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
KiNGSLEY, J. S., Sc. D., Professor of Biology, Tufts College, Mass.
Kirk, Edwin Garvey, B. S., Associate Instructor in Anatomy, University ot Chicago, Hull Laboratory of Anatomy, 637 Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, III.
Knower, Henry McE., A. B., Ph. D., Instructor in Anatomy, Johns Hopkins University Medical Department (Co-Editor and Secretary of the American Journal of Anatomy), Baltimore, Md.
KoFoiD, Charles Atwood, Ph. D., Associate Professor of Histology and Embryology, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.
Kutchin, Harriet Lehmann, A. M., Assistant in Biology, University of IMontana, Missoula, Mont.
Kyes, Preston, A. M., M. D., Assistant Professor of Experimental Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
Lamb, Daniel Smith, A. M., M. D., Pathologist Army Medical Museum, Professor of Anatomy, Howard University, Medical Department, ?iJ^ ISth Street, N. W., Washington, D. G.
Lambert, Adrian V. S., A. B., M. D., Instructor in Surgery, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 29 W. 36th Street, 'Neio York City, N. Y.
Landacre. Francis Leroy. A. B., Associate Professor of Zoology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
Lane, Michael Andrew, B. S., First Assistant, Department of Histology and Embryology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., JfSl Jackson Boulevard. Chicago, III.
LfCron, Wilbur L., A. B., UiW Mt. Royal Avenue, Baltimore, Md.
Lee, Thomas G., M. D., B. S., Professor of Histology and Embryology, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, Minn.
LeFevre. George, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, University of Missouri, 163
Maryland Place, Columbia, Mo. Leidy, Joseph, Jr.. A. M., M. D., Late Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy and Pathologic Histology, University of Pennsylvania. 1319 Locust Street, PhV \delphia. Pa.
30G The Anatomical Eecord.
Lempe. George Gustave, A. B., M. D., Lecturer on Auatomy, Albany Medical College, J,2 Eagle Street, Albany, N. Y.
Lewis, Dean D., M. D., Associate in Anatomy, Hull Anatomical Laboratory, Chicago University, Chicago, III.
Lewis, Frederick T., A. M., M. D., Assistant Professor of Embryology, Harvard Medical School (Editor of the American Naturalist), 2 Ellsicorth Avenue, Cambridge, Mass.
Lewis, Warren Harmon, B. S., M. D., Associate Professor in Anatomy, Johns Hopkins. University, Baltimore, Md.
Lewis, William Evan, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Miami Medical College, 409 E. 5th Street, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Lillie, Frank Rathay, Ph. D., Associate Professor of Zoology and Embryology, University of Chicago, Assistant Director of the Marine Biological Laboratory (Editor of the Zoological Bulletin), University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
LocY, William A., Ph. D., Sc. D., Professor of Zoology and Director of the
Zoological Laboratory, Northwestern University, Evanston, III. LoEB, Hanau Wolf, A. M., M. D., Professor of Nose and Throat Diseases, St.
Louis University, 537 2V^. Grand Avenue, St. Louis, Mo. LoEB, Leo, M. D., Assistant Professor of Experimental Pathology, University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. McCarthy, John George, M. D., Lecturer and Senior Demonstrator of
Anatomy, McGill University, 61 Drummond Street, Montreal, Canada. McClellan, George, M. D., Professor of Applied Anatomy, Jefferson Medical
College, 1116 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pa. McGlure, Charles Freeman Williams, A. M., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. McDonald, Archibald L., A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology,
Medical Department, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, iV. Dak. McDonough, Edward Joseph, A. B., M. D., Instructor in Histology, Medical
School of Maine, 624 Congress Street, Portland, Me. McGiLL, Caroline. A. M., Instructor in Anatomy, University of Missouri,
Columbia, Mo.
McMubrich, James Playfair, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
McNeal, Ward J., Ph. D., M. D., Assistant Chief in Bacteriology, Department of Animal Husbandry, University of Illinois, 1005 W. Oregon Street, Urbana, III.
Major, Ralph Hermann, A. B., Johns Hopkins Medical School, 1222 North Broadway, Baltimore, Md.
Mall, Franklin P., A. M., M. D., LL. D., D. Sc, Professor of Anatomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md,
The Anatomical Eecord. 307
Mabk, Edward Laueens, Pb. D., LL. D., Ilersey Professor of Anatomy and
Director of the Zoological Laboratory, Harvard University, 10!) Irving
Street, Camhridge, Mass. Mabtin, Walton, Pb. B., M. B., Instructor in Surgery, College of Physicians
and Surgeons, Columbia University, 68 E. 56th Street, Neio York City,
N. Y. Matas, Rudolph, M. D., Professor of Surgery, Medical Department of
Tulane University, 2255 St. Charles Avenue, New Orleans, La. Mebceb, Willlam F., Ph. D., Professor of Biology, Ohio University, 200 E.
State Street, Athens, Ohio. Mellus, Edward Lindon, M. D., Anatomical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins
Medical School, Baltimore, Md. Meyer, Adolf, M. D., LL. D., Director of the Pathological Institute of the
New York State Hospitals, Ward's Island ; Professor of Psychiatry,
Cornell Medical School, Ward's Island, New York City, N. Y. Meyeb, Arthur W., S. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department.
Northwestern University, Chicago, III. Miller, Walter McNat, B. Sc, M. D., Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, University of Missouri, 801 Virginia Avenue. Cohimhia. Mo. MiLLEB, William Snow, M. D., Associate Professor of Anatomy, University
of Wisconsin, University Club, Madison, Wis. MiNOT, Charles Sedgewick, S. B. (Chem.), S. D., LL. D., D. Sc, Professor
of Comparative Anatomy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. MixTER, Samuel Jason, B. S., M. D., Instructor of Surgery, Harvard Medical
School, 180 Marlborough Street, Boston, Mass.
Moody, Mary Blaib, M. D., 165 8. Marengo Avenue, Pasadena, Cal.
MooDY, RoBEBT Obton, B. S., M. D., Assistant Professor of Anatomy, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.
MoBGAN, James Dudley, A. B., M. D., Clinical Professor, Georgetown University Hospital and Medical School, Physician to Garfield Memorial Hospital, 919 5th Street, McPherson Square, Washington, D. C.
MuNBOE, John Cummings, A. B., M. D.. Surgeon in Chief, Carney Hospital, 173 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.
MuNSON, John P., Ph. D., Head of the Department of Biology, Washington State Normal School, Ellenshurg, Washington.
Mubphy, James, B. S., Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimoie, Md.
Myebs, Burton D., A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University, Bloomington, hid.
Nachtrieb, Henry Francis. B. S.. Professor of Animal Biology, University of Minnesota, 905 S. E. 6th Street, Minneapolis, Minn.
Neal, Herbert Vincent, Ph. D., Professor of Biology, Knox College, 150 N. Academy Street, Oalesburg, III.
308 The Anatomical Eecord.
Noble, Habbiet Isabel, M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Presector and Curator of the Department of Anatomy, Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Noble, Pa.
OsBOEN, Henby Faibchild, Sc. D., LL. D., Da Costa Professor of Zoology in Columbia University ; Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and 8th Avenue, New York City, N. r.
Pabkeb, Chaeles, Aubrey, M. D., Instructor in Anatomy and Instructor in Surgery, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago, 1660 Fulton Street, Chicago, III.
Pabkeb, George Howard, D. Sc, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University, 16 Berkeley Street, Cambridge, Mass.
Paton, Stewart, A. B., M. D., Room 30, 22 William Street, New York City, N. Y.
Patten, Willlam, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.
Patteeson, James, B. S., Assistant in Anatomy, University of Chicago, Hull Laboratory of Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
PiEBSOL, Geobge L., M. D., Sc. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of Pennsylvania, .^724 Chester Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.
PoHLMAN, August G., M. D., Junior Professor of Anatomy, Indiana University, ill Fess Avenue, Bloomington, Ind.
Potteb, Peteb, M. S., M. D., Associate Professor of Anatomy, St. Louis University, Marion-Sims-Beaumont Medical College, Grand Avenue and Caroline Street, St. Louis, Mo.
Pbentiss, H. J., M. D., M. E., Professor of Anatomy, University of Iowa, loioa City, la.
Pbimrose, Alexander, M. B., C. M. Ed., M. R. C. S. Eng., Professor of Surgery, University of Toronto, 100 College Street, Toronto, Canada.
Pbyor, Joseph William, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, State College of Kentucky, 261 N. Broadtcay, Lexington, Ky.
Radasch, Henry E., M. S., M. D., Associate in Histology and Embryology, Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy (Department of General Anatomy), Jefferson Medical College, Lecturer on General and Dental Histology, Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery, 91.'t S. Ji7th Street, Philadelphia.
Reese, Albert Moobe, A. B., Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.
Refobd, L. L., B. a., M. D., 803 Cathedral Street, Baltimore, Md.
Reisingeb, Emoby William, M. D., Assistant in Anatomy at the Georgetowii Medical and Dental Schools, 1^24 K Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.
Retzee, Robebt, M. D., Instructor in Anatomy, Johns Hopkins University, 227 W. Monument Street, Baltimore, Md.
The Anatomical Eecord. 309
Revell, Daniel Gbaisberry, A. B., M. B., Department of Public Health,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Rice, Edward Loramus, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, Ohio Wesleyan University, ISJf W. Lincoln Avenue, Delaware, Ohio. Russell, Nelson G., M. D., Assistant in Anatomy, Medical Department,
University of Buffalo, Jf75 Franklin Street, Buffalo, N. Y. Sarin, Florence R., B. S., M. D., Associate Professor of Anatomy, Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Sampson, John Albertson, A. B., M. D., ISO Washington Avenue, Albany,
N. Y. Santee, Harris E., Ph. D., M. D., Professor of Anatomy in the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, University of Illinois and in the Jenner
Medical College, 770 Warren Avenue, Chicago, III. ScANNON, Richard E., A. B.. Austin Teaching Fellow in Histology and Embryology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass. ScHAEFFER, Marie Charlotte, M. D., Lecturcr and Demonstrator of Biology
and Normal Histology, Medical Department, University of Texas,
Galveston, Texas. ScHULTE. Herman Von W., A. B., M. D., Adjunct Professor of Anatomy,
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 176 W. 87th
Street, Neio York City, N. Y. ScHMiTTER, Ferdinand. A. B., M. D., First Lieutenant. Assistant Surgeon,
U. S. Army, Fort Egbert, Alaska. Seelig, Major G., A. B.. M. D., Assistant in Anatomy, Medical Department of
St. Louis University, Humboldt Building, 537 N. Grand Avenue, St.
Louis, Mo. Selling, Lawrence, A. B., 810 N. Broadway, Baltimoi-e, Md. Senior, Harold D., M. B., F. R. C. S., Associate Professor of Anatomy, College
of Medicine, Syracuse University, Orange Street, Syracuse, N. Y. Shambaugh, George E., Ph. B., M. D., Instructor in the Anatomy of the Ear,
Nose and Throat, University of Chicago ; Associate in Osteology, Rush
Medical College, 100 State Street, Chicago, III. Sheldon, Ralph Edward, A. M., M. S., Assistant in Anatomy, University of
Chicago, Hull Laboratory of Anatomy, Chicago, III. Shepherd, Francis John, M. D., C. M., M. R. C. S., Eng., LL. D., Professor of
Anatomy, McGill University, 152 Mansfield Street, Montreal, Canada. Shute, Daniel Kerfoot, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Columbia
University, 1719 De Sales Street, Washington, D. C. Silvester, Charles Frederick. Curator of the Morphological Museum and
Assistant in Anatomy, Princeton University, 10 Nassau Hall, Princeton, N. J. SissoN, Septimus, B. S., V. S., Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio.
310 The Anatomical Eecord.
Slxjdee, Greenfield, M. D., Medical Department, Washington University,
2-i67 Washington Avenue, St. Louis, Mo. Small, Richabd Dresser, A. B., M. D., Instructor in Anatomy, Portland
Medical School, 15Jt High Street, Portland Me. Smith, Charles Dennison, A. M., M. D., Professor of Physiology, Medical
School of Maine, Maine General Hospital, Portland, Me. Smith, Eugene Alfred, M. D., 1018 Maine Street, Buffalo, N. Y. Smith, Frank, A. M., Associate Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois,
913 W. California Avenue, Vrbana, III. Smith, J. Holmes, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of Maryland,
2205 St. Paul Street, Baltimoi-e, Md. Spitzka, Edward Anthony, M. D., Professor of General Anatomy, Jefferson
Medical College, 10th and Walnut Streets, Philadelphia, Pa. Steensland, Holbert Severin, B. S., M. D., Associate Professor of Pathology
and Bacteriology, and Director of the Pathological Laboratory, Syracuse
University, 505 University Place, Syracuse, N. Y. Stewart, George David, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Clinical Surgery,
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical School, 143 E. 37th Street,
New York City, N. Y. Stiles, Henry Wilson, M. D., Instructor in Anatomy, University of Michigan,
Ann Ar'bor, Mich. Stockard, Charles Rupert, B. S., M. S., Ph. D., Assistant in Embryology and
Histology, Cornell Medical School, 28th Street and First Avenue, New
York City, N. Y. Streeter, George L., A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Stromsten, Frank Albert, D. Sc, Instructor in Animal Biology, State University of Iowa, 27 East Burlington Street, loica City, la. Strong, Oliver S., Ph. D., Instructor in Histology and Embryology, College
of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 437 W. 59th Street,
NeiD York City, N. Y. Strong, Reuben Myron, Ph. D., Instructor in Zoology, University of Chicago,
Chicago, III. Sudleb, Mervin T., M. D., Ph. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of
Kansas, 1037 Tennessee Street, Laurence, Kan. SuNDWALL, John, Ph. D., Assistant in Anatomy, Department of Anatomy,
University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Taussig, Frederick Joseph, A. B., M. D., Clinical Assistant in Gynecology,
Medical Department, Washington University, 2318 Lafayette Avenue,
St. Louis, Mo. Taylor, Edward W., A. M., M. D., Instructor in Neurology, Harvard Medical
School, 457 Marlborough Street, Boston, Mass. Taylor, Ewing, A. B., M. D., Instructor in Histology, Cornell Medical College,
19 Arden Place, Yonkers, N. Y.
The Anatomical Record. 311
Tebby, Robert James, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical Department, Washington University, 1806 Locust Street, St. Louis, Mo.
Thro, William C, A. M., 219 E. 21tth Street, New York City, N. Y.
Thyng, Frederick Wilbur, Ph. D., 32^ Boston Avenue, Tufts College, Mass.
ToBiE, Walter E., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Medical School of Maine, 2 Deering Street, Portland, Me.
TUPPER, Paul Yoer, M. D., Professor of Applied Anatomy and Operative Surgery, Medical Department, Washington University, Linmar Building, St. Louis, Mo.
TuCKERMAN, FREDERICK, M. D., Ph. D., Amhcrst, Mass.
Waite, Frederick Clayton, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of Histology and Embryology, Western Reserve University, E. 9th Street and St. Clair Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.
Walker, George, M. D., Instructor in Surgery, Johns Hoplvins University, Cor. Charles and Centre Streets, Baltimore, Md.
Wabd, Charles Howard, Director of Anatomical Laboratory for the Preparation of Osteological Specimens and Anatomical Models, 387 West Avenue, Rochester, N. Y.
Warren, John, M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.
Waethin, Alfred Scott, Ph. D., M. D., Professor of Pathology and Director of the Pathological Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arhor, Mich.
Webster, John Clarence, B. A., M. D., F. R. C. P. Ed., Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago, 106 Reliance Building, 100 State Street, Chicago, III.
Weisse, Faneuil D., M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Oral Surgery, New York College of Dentistry, 46 W. 20th Street, Neio York City, N. Y.
West, Charles Ignatius, M. D., Lecturer on Topographical Anatomy, Howard University, and First Assistant Surgeon, Freedman's Hospital, 924 M Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.
Weysse, Arthur Wissland, A. M., M. D., Ph. D., Professor of BioDogy, Boston University, 688 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass.
Whitehead, Richard Henry, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.
Wilder, Burt G., M. D., B. S., Professor of Neurology, Vertebrate Zoology, and Physiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Wilder, Harris Hawthorne, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, Smith Collegt, 72 Dryads Green, Northampton, Mass.
Williams, Leonard Worcester, Ph. D., Instructor in Comparative Anatomy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.
Williams, Stephen Riggs, Ph. D., Professor of Biology and Geology, Miami University, Box 150, Oxford, Ohio.
313 The Anatomical Record.
Wilson, J. Gordon, M. D., Associate in Anatomy, University of Cliicago,
Hull Laboratory of Anatomy, Chicago, III. Wilson, James Meredith, Ph. B., M. D., Assistant Professor of Histology
and Embryology, St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. WiNSLOw, Guy Monroe, Ph. D., Instructor in Histology, Tufts Medical
College, 145 Woodland Road, Auhurndale, Mass. WiTHERSPOON, Thomas Casey, M. D., 307 Granite Street, Butte, Montana. WoLCOTT, Robert Henry, A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, University of
Nebraska, Station A., Lincoln, Neb. Woods, Frederick Adams, M. D., Lecturer in Biology, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, 1006 Beacon Street, Brookline, Mass. WooLSEY, George, A. B., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, and Clinical Surgery,
Cornell University Medical College, 117 E. 36th St., New York City,
N. Y. YuTZY, Simon M., M. D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Mich.
THE
ANATOMICAL RECORD
Vol. II. NOVEMBER, 1908. No. 8
On the Teaching of Anatomy.
BY FRANKLIN P. MALL.
The following report on the teaching of anatomy is based upon the course which was given at the Johns Hopkins University during the past academic year. The course, as now given, is of gradual development and was naturally evolved to meet the needs of this institution. However, it is built upon two underlying principles which I believe to be of prime importance in the teaching of any subject: First, the concentration of elementary teaching; this, as applied to anatomy, means that the elementary work be given within the first year and that the student's schedule be so arranged that he may be able to devote the greater part of his time to the study of anatomy until he has finished this elementary work. Second, that only the elementary work be required of all students. Correlated with the elementary courses required of all students, elective or more advanced optional courses become necessary to meet the demands of students who may desire a more profound knowledge of anatomy than is obtained from the elementary courses.
During the first year of the Johns Hopkins Medical School (1893-4) all students pursued parallel courses in osteology, histolog}', gross anatomy, physiology and physiological chemistry, and since the courses w^ere largely practical, the results were not entirely satisfactory, for the time of the students was broken up too much and their energies somewhat dissipated. The following year the work of the incoming students was largely concentrated, the first portion of the year (until March 15th) being devoted exclusively to the study of anatomy and the remainder to that of physiology and physiological chemistry. During the second year of the medical course the study of gross anatomy was continued during three forenoons each week before Christmas, and five forenoons from Christmas until Easter.
314 The Anatomical Eecord.
Years ago the value of a concentrated course in anatoni}- was emphasized with great force by von Baer and later it was strongly advocated, in an address upon the teaching of anatomy, by Waldeyer.
According to our great master, von Baer,^ universities are in existence for the scientific education of young men, and since this is best obtained by continued self-instruction under guidance and not through numerous comprehensive and elegant lectures, it follows that the work of each semester should be concentrated upon a given main subject, for only in this way can a student obtain critical insight and thorough knowledge. Whenever we wish to do an5"thing well we devote all of our time to it until it is accomplished, and if anatomy is worth studying it is worth studying well, and it is far better to concentrate all of one's attention to this study during a winter than to dissipate it through a number ot years. To be sure, children cannot do this, for they tire rapidly and need a varied intellectual ' diet each day But later in life, a student gains more and is better satisfied when he devotes all of this time to a subject until he masters it through self-instruction. If it be true that a single student can master anatomy in a single half year instead of scattering its study over four or five half years, why is it not possible, von Baer asks, to teach a larger number by the concentration method? Furthermore, he says, that if all of the necessary anatomy could be taught medical students in a winter semester the much overworked professor would have all of his time left during the spring and summer for scientific research, which is absolutely necessary to him if he wishes to exert a vitalizing influence upon his students.
In case the work in anatomy is concentrated into a semester it falls upon the Professor, von Baer continues, to separate the essential from the useful and this in turn from the ornamental. Only the essential and part of the useful become required work, but an opportunity should always be given to study the rest, since the "essential" may lie in this for various individual students. The student who is to become an obstetrician may desire, and in fact needs, different phases of the work from one who is to became an anatomist or an ophthalmologist. Von Baer did not doubt for a moment that in the course of time medical study would change, for during his time practical laboratory work was being introduced into the course, and this of necessity would make the teaching inductive in character, for it could not be otherwise as soon as the power of self ^Von Baer, Nachrichten iiber Leben und Schriften. St. Petersburg, 1866, p. 176.
The Anatomical Kecord. 315
instruction began to make itself felt. As the progress of the student becomes of greater importance than the convenience of the professor the concentration system, which in a measure is a forerunner to the elective system, must be introduced.
In his excellent address on the teaching of anatomy Waldeyer^ discusses the cardinal question — its relation to medical education — and asserts that the method of instruction must be changed to agree with the ideas of von Baer. Times have changed since anatomy has grown out of her swaddling clothes into a mature individual which has given birth to a number of vigorous daughters who must also be courted by the medical student. Half a century ago all the science which a medical student studied was represented largely by the professor of anatomy, and he taught anatomy in the winter and physiology in the spring. There were then no practical courses on histology, pathology, or physiology, not to speak of physiological chemistry, pharmacology, bacteriology, hygiene, nor on the various specialties which were in general tacked on by the professors of medicine and surgery. Furthermore, the number of examinations was much fewer than at present and the student had little or no knowledge of science when he began the study of medicine. It was perfectly natural that under these conditions the study of anatomy should be pursued during a number of years, for only in it was the medical student able to obtain a biological as well as a practical laboratory education.
Now the student must study a number of branches (and in America he works in at least half a dozen laboratories), through which he also becomes thoroughly disciplined. But, Waldeyer continues, the days still contain but twenty-four hours, and life must still be reckoned with three score and ten, and there is no evidence that the mind can stand a greater strain now than formerly. It follows then that the course in anatomy must be readjusted to meet the new conditions. First and foremost we must ask ourselves what is absolutely necessary for the future physician to study in anatomy and what is of secondary value but still useful? The necessary (nothige) anatomy he would make obligatory and would examine in it, but he would not discontinue courses on the useful (niitzliche), for it is through the study of the second that the science progresses. These secondarj^ courses should not be made obligatory in any way, by being prescribed nor through examinations. They should be free, or, in American terminology, they should be elective.
"Waldeyer, Wie soil man Anatomie lehren una lernen. Berlin, 1884.
316 The Anatomical Eecord.
In order to bring about the desired reform, Waldeyer says that the study of the natural sciences (our physics, chemistry and biology) should be concentrated into one year after the student graduates from the gymnasium, and until he has passed a satisfactory examination in these subjects he should not be allowed to matriculate as a medical student. This one year should be devoted exclusively to the above named subjects and should not be mixed with the study of anatomy or of physiology, in order that the student may have leisure time to gain a critical insight in them.
During the second year the study of anatomy and physiology should be taken up and completed — ^that is, it should be concentrated. According to the conditions which are peculiar to Germany it would throw these subjects into two winter semesters, the intervening summer semester being devoted to military service. Waldeyer continues as follows (the translation is free) : It is clear to me that during these two semesters the student who has become proficient in chemistry, physics and biology (which he attains better by the proposed method of concentration) can devote himself more intensely and during all of his time to the study of anatomy and physiology. Then it will no longer happen, as is the sad experience of all anatomists, that the work in the dissecting room and in the histological laboratory degenerates as the time for examinations in physics, chemistry and biology (Tentamen phj'^sicum) approaches. Under these conditions the student may learn to dissect well both macroscopically and microscopically, as he can pursue his work peacefully and diligently, for he will not be taken away from it as soon as he has become greatly interested, as is now the case, by a lecture upon some entirely different subject. This latter I consider the chief reason why only a relatively small number of students learn to dissect well, inasmuch a? they do not have time to work long enough at their specimens. No sooner are they started at their work than, on account of some foreign lecture, they must lay their knives aside and they may not take them up again until the next day. Thus the work progresses very slowly and the specimens begin to spoil, so that many students lose the desire to finish well. Many of the single hours which lie between the lectures are also completely lost. Furthermore, a fairly industrious student would soon realize that positive progress is made from day to day if he could follow the proposed plan for the study of anatomy. It would also become apparent to him that through concentration the knowledge obtained would be of more permanent value and that the love for his work would increase. I believe that this arrangement of the medical courses would be of the greatest advantage in teaching as well as in studving anatomv.
Tlie Anatomical Eecorcl. 317
The above opinion of two of the greatest masters of anatomy is given at some length because it indicates the trend of the relation of anatomy, that is, the proportion of time its study should occupy, to the rest of the studies in a medical course. Both are in favor of a concentrated course and against one in which the students' energies are dissipated by taking numerous studios at the same time. They are of the opinion that the student should confine himself to the intense study of anatomy alone until he has finished the necessary work in the subject.
When the Johns Hopkins Medical School was opened the first condition as laid down by Waldeyer was met by the requirements for matriculation. The course of instruction was planned for the professional training for those who have received a liberal education, as indicated by a collegiate degree in arts or science, including a reading knowledge of French or German and adequate training in those branches of science, such as physics, chemistry and biology, which underlie the medical sciences. In completing the endowment of the medical department Miss Garrett stipulated that the medical school shall be exclusively a graduate school, and since in general a collegiate degree represents about two years more work than that given in a German gymnasium it was believed to be best to require also about a year's work in physics, chemistry and biology, since these subjects could be taken as electives during the last two years of college. The medical course was then divided into two equal parts of two years each and the work of the first part was confined exclusively to the study of the sciences, including pathology and bacteriology. It naturally followed that the medical student must begin his study with anatomy, and much anatomy, for this subject is fundamental in a medical course and the required study of physics, chemistry and biology had been taken before matriculation. At first, during 1893-4, the various subdivisions of anatomv, physiology and ph^'siological chemistry were studied simultaneously, but during the next year, 1894-5, and ever since practically all of the time of the first year medical student, from October imtil March 15th, is devoted to the study of anatomy. Supplementary courses are given in the spring, during the second year, and later. Most of the time in the spring is devoted to physiological chemistry and physiology, the next autumn to practical physiology and bacteriology, the winter to pathology and advanced anatomy, etc. Thus the concentration system was introduced, which I had seen in operation to great advantage during the two previous years at the University of Chicago, and which has been introduced with variations, during the last de
318 The Anatomical Record.
cade, in most of our leading medical schools. The concentration method as outlined by von Baer nearly half a century ago is now well under way in America, Let us hope that it will yield some of the fruits that he has predicted it would!
Probably the most important course in medical schools the world over is that in practical gross human anatomy. One might almost say that the removal of any other course from the curriculum would not destroy the course, but if there were no dissecting room the school would have to close its doors; there would be no students. Personally I do not believe that the study of human anatomy is of such value, but it has held its own so long, it is so well intrenched in the medical course and in medical literature, and it has been represented by so many great masters during ages that as a discipline and as a foundation it justly occupies the first position. Therefore, it seems to me that gross human anatomy, as a practical course, should be. required of all students and that the best energies of the anatomical staff should be devoted to its teaching. The professors should teach in the dissecting room. They should live there with their students and not delegate this important work to untried assistants.
The next course in order, which no one will question should be required of all students, is that on practical histology. Every medical student should also be proficient in histology, that is, should be able to use the microscope intelligently in working out animal tissues, especially mammalian and human.
In my opinion only these two courses should be required of all students. All the other courses in anatomy should be elective. These I shall discuss somewhat fully presently.
AVlien I first outlined the work in anatomy, microscopic work was given a place in the schedule during afternoons and gross anatomy during forenoons. The plan was to continue both until the student got satisfaction. But as the work developed it soon became necessary to break it up to meet the requirements of an increased number of students and a larger staff. It was no longer possible for all of us to be everywhere all of the time, as is the case when there are but a few students and but one or two teachers.
During the second year of the medical school, with the introduction of the concentration system, it was my good fortune to secure the cooperation of Dr. Barker, who took entire charge of the microscopic work while I devoted all my energies to the teaching of practical anatomy. To
The Anatomical Eecord. 319
this I devoted six full forenoons and Dr. Barker had control of all the students' time in the afternoons. I soon decided to make work in the dissecting during Saturday forenoon optional, and he did the same with his work Tuesday and Thursday afternoons, but this made little difference to the students, for all of them worked with the microscope during those optional periods, although the instructors were not present. Von Baer's plan showed that serious students who had had a liberal education and thorough training in physics, chemistry and biology were able to receive an education in anatomy by self-instruction under guidance. The concentration system permitted us to make the teaching inductive, and it was practical from the beginning.
Of course it was our aim from the very beginning to make our teaching bona fide and serious and in no sense perfunctory. We could not afford to make it inferior in quality to that given in the colleges from which our students had been graduated. Naturally all aids at our disposal were used in teaching, one of which consisted of grading the courses, but in no instances have concessions been made to inferior, indolent or frivolous students.
In arranging the work of a course it is desirable to build a foundation and follow this with a superstructure. If what comes first is really fundamental, that which follows is easily comprehended, and with it come many repetitions of the first. In presenting the essential it is necessary to instruct the student in the ordinary methods of work, of classification, of differentiation, and as much as possible of the steps through which anatomy has made progress, as well as of its use as a science and as an art. While becoming familiar with the structure of the human body he should gain a critical insight into anatomy and should become able to think anatomically.
Since students vary very much in endowment, energy and enthusiasm, and since our students vary much in biological and in anatomical training when they come to us, it became necessary to adjust the teaching to the needs of the individual student, and this naturally brought about the development of an elective system. Soon the elementary, fundamental courses containing the essentials in quality and in quantity became the required courses and all of the rest became elective courses.
For the past ten years, at least, our courses in anatomy have been divided into these two main groups, and we believe it an advantage to medicine to favor the more advanced, diligent and talented student by allowing him to proceed with advanced work, — and there is enough to
320 The Anatomical Eecord.
be done, — rather than to compel him to lag behind with the slowest. In order to make this possible the various courses must begin and end at the same time, so that the student really can arrange his own schedule. If the various courses overlap, as is frequently the case in our various schools, an elective system is out of the question. I do not know what brought it about, but from the beginning of the school we used half-day units in a number of laboratory courses, possibly because pathology had been given as a three half-days course before. After some discussion of the question it was decided that two such half days, or five hours a week, should be made the measure for all courses, each of which should continue for three months, Christmas and Easter being natural dividing lines in medical schools. Thus a five-hour course which continues for three months, or a trimester, is called the unit. The work in the dissecting room, which occupies fifteen hours a week, becomes a three-imit course, and histology becomes a two-unit course. It was also found that the human body can be dissected fairly well by about one-half of the students in two trimesters, so we fixed upon eight units of anatomy as the required work of all students, believing that most of them would elect more anatomy and that some of them would do the required work only and devote their elective time to some other subject. By this arrangement it has been found during the past academic year that in addition to the eight required units each student averaged fully eight elective units in anatomy. Since our medical student is required to show credit for thirty units work, including all of the obligatory courses, before entering upon the work of the third year it is clear that on an average during the past year a little more than half of the students' time of the first two years of the medical course, or one full year, was devoted to the study of anatomy.
I am fully convinced that the inductive method, strongly advocated by Huxley, is the best one to use in teaching any biological subject and that human anatomy is especially adapted to this purpose, for the subject to be studied is of convenient size and its literature is the best.^ The beginner should start to dissect at once, as recommended by both Hyrtl and Waldeyer. Why pester the students first with a course of lectures which after all rarely serve as an introduction to anatomy ? The inductive system is especially of value with mature students who have already studied biology for at least a year, and it has always seemed to me that
'See also my article in the .Johos Hopkins Bulletin. 1896.
The Anatomical Eecord. 321
it is our duty to start them in the dissecting room on the very first day of their medical course. Furthermore, this work is the most important for all students of anatomy whether they are to become physicians, physiologists, zoologists or anatomists. Its position in the literature of science makes it fundamental and essential and therefore it becomes the elementary one for all students of anatomy. I am well aware that we have several strong schools of anatomy in America, not connected with medical education, in which dissection of the human body is neglected entirely, and the papers from these schools often show a deficiency in the knowledge of the object which has received the attention of many great masters, which has the best literature, and from the study of which all biological science has arisen.
The methods in the dissecting room are extremely simple, cadavers are in abundance and are easily preserved indefinitely, and its guide books are in possession of all students ; so with order and attention on the part of the instructors students can learn their anatomy first hand and can be thoroughly disciplined in anatomical methods and in anatomical thinking. Of course we should begin to dissect the body from the outside and the skin naturally should be studied first. It must be taken off, and in order to do so the instructor has an excellent opportunity to show the use and value of the various instruments used in dissection. Good knives, scissors that will cut, forceps that will take a firm hold of either a hair or a rope, and a strong steel probe with which to dig about are all the instruments that are needed. The sham sets of a large number of instruments made of cast iron are to be most carefully avoided. The student soon learns that good instruments, if they are kept in perfect condition, extend his fingers and are absolutely necessary in his work. Therefore the care of instruments becomes one of the lessons of the first day's work. Then the student removes the skin, the whole skin and the skin only, from over the region which he is to dissect. This most students learn to do during the first day. Then he begins to seek structures in the superficial fascia, finds veins, arteries and nerves, and if finding these structures arouses the student's interest he naturally reads about them then and there and soon gains confidence in himself.
When I first introduced this method of instruction it usually required six weeks before the majority of students were working well, for at the beginning insufficient stress was laid upon the necessity of having good and sharp instruments as well as upon very careful work. Now, since we make these two points the chief task until mastered, we find that
332 The Anatomical Eecord.
nearly all students are well in hand in less than a week. As soon as they command the methods the study of anatomy begins. After the skin M'e take up the study of the superficial fascia, then we clean the muscles that are first exposed and gain more knowledge of the deep fascia. The students who are dissecting arms are gradually led by the larger vessels and nerves through the axilla under the clavicle into the neck, and those dissecting legs by the lumbar nerves through the abdominal walls, cleaning the muscles as they proceed.
It is out of place to mention the various steps of each dissection, for they are well known. However, several points must not be omitted.
Each student receives a skeleton at the beginning of the course which he may keep throughout the year. At the end of the first day he is requested to study the clavicle and scapula if he is dissecting the arm, and the innominate bone if he is dissecting the leg. He receives further advice on following days, after which he usually takes good care of himself. Mounted skeletons are hung in each of the dissecting rooms to which constant reference is made and in the adjoining study room a great number and variety of bones are always at hand. At the end of each dissection the muscles are gradually removed in order to study their attachment to the bones, and the ligaments are worked out carefully. At this time the green bone is of necessity studied again, so the course on osteology is given in the dissecting room throughout the year. Since we have been doing this I no longer hear the complaint about dry bones, and I am certain that the students have lost nothing by the change.
It is evident by this time that the student miist help himself if he wishes to learn anatomy by self -instruction under guidance; our experience is that, if anything, he is far too industrious, and it has been necessary for us to legislate against overwork. Formerly the dissecting rooms were open from seven to five (Saturdays from seven to one), but on account of overwork we have omitted the work on Saturdays and do not open the laboratory until eight o'clock on the remaining week days. While the students are at work they look up the new structures as they are exposed, they make numerous sketches and they study very much in their text-books. Practically all students purchase atlases, and these are of the greatest value to them in their study, for they also aid the imagination in looking ahead. Each student also develops a system of notes which he carries to his home to suggest lines of reading, and in return brings notes to the laboratory which guide his work on the next day. Soon his preparation becomes his problem and then the greatest
The Anatomical Eecord. 323
value of the instructor comes from the aid given him in its development. A given step in a dissection is not complete until the most is made of it, then the next step is discovered with the student, and it has ])een my habit to follow the student's plan of work if it seems reasonable and not to compel him to follow me blindly. If this is done the student's critical power is developed, for we are reasoning with him and he is choosing. Furthermore, it gives variety to the work and prevents a deadening monotony.
The system which includes two dissections of the human body, first the muscles and then the blood-vessels as is customary in Europe, has never received a firm foothold in America. Here we have usually attempted to work out all structures at once, and if the time is short and the standard is not high the work usually ends in a dissection of the muscles only, and a poor one at that. But when you have to deal with mature students who are proficient in biology and devote their main energy to the work for six months the results are most satisfactory. In general this system calls for as complete a dissection as possible of each part without removing many muscles, after which square cuts are made through them to show deeper structures, and then the muscles are removed systematically to show their deeper attachments and the ligaments.
I prefer to start the beginner on either an arm or a leg, taking for this purpose a cadaver without viscera, leaving the head and viscera until the student has become somewhat proficient in anatomy. By this arrangement we make the most of our material and are not crowded too much for working space. After the student is well started in his work he finds that he can easily occupy himself one week on the thoracic and two weeks on the abdominal viscera, which is certainly out of the question with those who do not master anatomical methods.
In two trimesters there are 110 half days (8 to 1) and if the student shows some interest and industry, and has some talent, he may make in this time a very satisfactory dissection of the lateral half of the human body; he has mastered anatomical methods and he can use anatomical literature. If as a test you ask him to make a dissection of the orbit or of the hand, he can do it intelligently, showing all of the ordinary structures, but he cannot repeat like a parrot from a given quiz compend. In my opinion a satisfactory dissection of the human body made during two trimesters is all that should be required in gross anatomy of any medical student. Of course if he fails to complete the work in the
324 The Anatomical Kecorcl.
required time, the time should be extended. Nor should we expect that all students who have done the required work will be proficient in anatomy. One of the chief objects of a final examination is to test proficiency.
In the past year some twenty of our students completed their required work in anatomy during their first summer vacation at various imiversities of America and Europe, but the table shows that thirty-two "elected" elementary anatomy in the second year of their course. A few of them were students who had been prevented from completing the required work in the regular time on account of illness or for other reasons. Most of them preferred to extend the dissection of the entire cadaver over three trimesters, and by no means did this group include all of the poorer students, Why should not a student extend his work even if it is inconvenient to us for him to do so? The object of the university is not our convenience, but the training of students, and an elective system considers the welfare of the student and the progress of science as more important than economy in instruction. Were the latter of the greater importance it would be better to return to the proprietary medical schools which paid large dividends.
For a number of years past the required work in gross anatomy has been in charge of four instructors, and we find it more satisfactory to all concerned to give each instructor entire charge of a section rather than to have daily or weekly rotation of the staff. A student remains in a section for a trimester or less (until he has completed a part) and then i^ assigned to a new instructor. By this method the student obtains instruction from several teachers, and each instructor is ambitious to hold the quality of the work of his section up to the highest possible standard. I have frequently felt the beneficial effect of a rival young instructor whose dissection room was better than mine. There has been a marked tendency for each of us to follow the best. At present a student may elect his instructors for the required work by going to other universities for it, as is customary in Germany.
The three elective courses on gross anatomy that are much appreciated by many of our students are the one hour conferences for beginners, the systematic study of anatomy with specimens and sections of the body but without dissection, and the one on topographical anatomy. The conferences have been given by a number of instructors, and they have been attended by a greater or less number of students, according to the aid they got from them. In general it is our opinion that the number of such courses should be increased, and we plan to do this during the coming year.
Required Courses.
Number of Students
Elementary anatomy.
H it
Elementary histology. Total
85 84 73
Hours per week
Trimester
15
15
9
[ Equivalent
Hours per
week for
one student
Autxmm 1275
Winter 1260
Autumn 657
3192
Elective Courses.
Elementary anatomy.
Studv-room courses in anatomy.
Genito-urinary anatomy Recitations in anatomy. Topographical anatomy. Histological technique. . Neurology
" (lectures)
Embryology
Artistic anatomy
Advanced anatomy
" histology
Journal club
Research
Elective for one trimester. Required " " "
Autumn Winter Spring Autumn Spring Winter Autumn Winter Winter Winter Winter Spring
A., W., S.
Spring
Autumn
A., W., S.
A., W., S.
192
90
24
204
306
36
66
915
27
486
168
171
162
18
30
315
3108 3192
Total for one trimester 6300
Average per trimester for one year 2100
Equals an average of 25 hours a week during a year for 84 students, or an average total of 900 hours for each student.
Classification of Students.
First year 85
Second year 71
Third year 4
Fourth year 1
Members of staff 4
Artists 4
Physicians 12
Total 181
326 The Anatomical Eecord.
The study room, which contains many specimens for study, has proved to be a most valuable adjunct in the teaching of anatomy. It has gradually become organized and the work of each student is carefully planned. In general they study serial sections of the body, comparing them with a variety of dissections. Many models, delicate dissections, fine bone specimens, topographical dissections and the like are constantly at the students' disposal. The coarser dissections and the numerous frozen sections are used very much and are replaced as rapidly as they are worn out. Using serial sections in the study of gross anatomy is fully as valuable as dissecting the embryo and making reconstructions are in the study of embryolog}% During the past year fifty-one first year and thirty-four second year students registered for work in the ?tudy room, and it was used by many who did not register for it.
The course on topographical anatomy which has been so well developed by Professor Lewis was attended by sixt5^-one students, many of whom had gone elsewhere during the previous summer in order to complete the required work which must precede this course. The work consists of making regional dissections and of systematic study, the dissections being reserved for the study room. The course has become too extensive for one instructor who is also occupied at the same time with other students, and it is planned to limit the number taking it during the coming year and to add regional dissection to each dissecting room as second dissections of the same part. Special work in gross anatomy will be discussed presently with that in histolog}' and embryolog5\
The second required course is that on general anatomy or histolog}'.* In general the microscopic work of the student continues from October 1st to March 15th, and of this time during different years from three to five afternoons have been devoted to the study of histology and microscopic anatomy for about four months. When the courses were rearranged to fit into trimesters, that on histology and microscopic anatomy was given three half days a week during the autumn trimester. This time may be somewhat short, but, considering the previous biological training of the students, which usually includes embryology, their opportunity to continue with elective courses and the great amount of time which is devoted to microscopic work in pathology' and in other courses, I think an efficient teacher can give the student a strong foundation in histology during one trimester. The students work faithfully from two to five p. m., three times a week, and most of them work also during the
See also Barker and Bardeen, Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, 1896.
The Anatomical Eecord. 327
two optional afternoons and sometimes during forenoons, as each student's place is reserved for him during the whole day.
About the first half of the trimester is occupied with the study of the tissues, in the fresh state, in frozen sections, and in small blocks which have been treated by a great variety of methods. The student learns to tease and stain under the microscope, and there is no inducement for him to collect a set of sections without studying them, although he often makes permanent mounts. At the beginning of the course he receives as a loan a box of slides containing specimens which are more difficult to make, and these are frequently referred to and studied throughout the trimester.
After the tissues have been thoroughly studied by the various methods mentioned above the microscopic anatomy of the organs is taken up in a systematic way. In this study sections made with the microtome are stained and mounted by the student in order to teach him well established methods. However, it is necessary to connect what is seen in hardened and stained sections with a teased specimen on the one hand and with the gross specimen on the other. In order to meet this difficulty a system, e. g., the digestive, is treated as a whole by having each student dissect it rapidly in a foetal pig. That which is studied in regions in the dissecting room is here studied as a whole. Then the parts of the alimentary canal are taken up in order and each part is first studied rapidly as a whole. When we take up the liver entire organs are at the disposal of the students, who scrape out and examine the cells and study macerated frozen sections. In this study hardened and injected sections are constantly compared with the fresh, without enlargement, under the dissecting microscope and with high powers. As far as possible the function of the part is constantly emphasized and some of the changes which may take place in disease are not overlooked. We believe that when the teaching of anatomy is from the standpoint of physiology it is much easier to arouse independent effort on the part of the student. By this method an afternoon devoted to the study of the liver, and not to the mounting of sections, is most instructive to the student. And for a number of years past we have not had those who are wholly occupied in collecting a large box full of mounted slides.
When whole animals are used in teaching microscopic anatomy the students would be bewildered by the great amount of material were not an efficient teacher present to guide them. As the underlying liberal education, which our students possess, is intended to give them a critical
328 The Anatomical Eecord.
attitude toward whatever they study, so that they may differentiate and separate the essential from the unessential, so the living teacher, who is also a student and has mastered his subject, easily guides the course in spite of the great quantity of material. The students continue to differentiate and pick out the essential. "Were it not so the work would become the dullest kind of useless routine.
As an adjunct to aid in the informal study of histology opportunity is afforded by a large classified collection of slides which students use at odd times. The collection is arranged in boxes according to tissues and organs, and has not only proved to be of great value to the students, but also to the members of the staff. A person working upon the lung appreciates very much the privilege of studying a great variety of well labeled specimens of this organ.
Students who have had a satisfactory course in histology before matriculation usually occupy the time assigned to this subject in our schedule to the study of bacteriology, and during the second year of the course this time in turn is devoted to an elective in this or in some other department.
The course in neurology was formulated during the second year of the medical school (1894) and has been given successively by myself, Professors Barker, Bardeen, Harrison and Sabin. As it was from the first decidedly advanced in character, we naturally made in an optional course, but up to the present it has been elected by practically all of our medical as well as by other students. At first it did not seem reasonable to impose so extensive a course upon all medical students, but now, since the elective system has been introduced, its right to exist is recognized. I may be permitted to say in defense of the course that a thorough knowledge of the nervous system is of fully as much value in medicine as is a knowledge of the skeleton, or of the anatomy of the leg, although the latter is more easy to comprehend. But the great value of the study of neurology seems to be fully appreciated by our students who have done their share in its development as a course during its formative period. This I should like to describe, but will leave it for one who has done most for the course.
At present we devote two afternoons a week for one trimester to the study of the eye, ear, spinal cord, medulla and the brain. Each part of the subject is presented from embryological and comparative standpoints without separating the gross from the microscopic. Especial emphasis is laid upon the study of human tissue. About two weeks are devoted to each of the above mentioned main subdivisions of the subject.
The Anatomical Record. 329
There is a great abundance of material and the work includes, for instance, a study of the convolutions of the brain, a set of serial sections of the medulla, as well as all kinds of gross dissections and microscopic sections of the central nervous system, — the eye and the ear. The nature of modern medicine, the appreciation of the work by our students, and the flattering extension of this course to other medical schools justifies the time, labor and thought expended upon it.
What is written above may be considered by many as a most powerful argument in favor of making the course in neurology obligatory, but that does not necessarily follow. After all, it is better for the course and more credit to the teacher when the students strive to enter it and not to escape it. Under such conditions the spirit is far better, for the students believe in their teachers, and defend them, and do not malign them, as is frequently the case when courses are obligatory.
The other elective courses of necessity cannot be taken by all of the students and generally are limited to a small number. Embryology, for which there is no great demand, since most students have had a satisfactory course in it before matriculation, has gradually become more and more advanced in character, and it is probable that it will develop into one on organogeny. Our students are more interested in the development of the heart than in its anlage. And so on.
The other courses are more or less advanced and are changing from year to year, according to the number of teachers present at the time as well as to their inclination. As the number of students in these courses is limited and as the work is advanced in character the opportunity is an excellent one for the best influence of the teacher to show itself. In fact, I consider it highly desirable for each instructor to give an independent course, for it has a tremendous influence upon his development as a teacher. If he makes himself felt he is rewarded, for his future is assured. The general principles of science must be developed and emphasized again and again in the required courses, which are always of an elementary character; in the elective courses some phases of the subject, or one of its divisions, is taken up and presented in much greater detail. The literature on one topic may be studied, newer technical methods may be repeated, the attention may be devoted to the anatomy and development of a single organ, or an original investigation may be undertaken. By these methods a greater attempt is made to satisfy the craving of an inquisitive mind, and to give further knowledge of anatomy, or to prepare for the subsequent study of one of the specialties, or to train anatomists.
330 The Anatomical Eecord.
During the past year the course on drawing was given in the anatomical laboratory mainly to first and second year students every Thursday forenoon. It proved to be of so much value to students with artistic talent that they were willing to dissect during odd afternoons in order to attend this course. It was also attended by professional illustrators as well as by some members of the anatomical staff. All of those with some artistic talent have considered it a great privilege to receive instruction in anatomical drawing from one who has mastered it. To make satisfactory anatomical drawings, anatomical objects must be interpreted, and therefore those who have had an education in art do not become anatomical artists until they understand anatomy and the conventions of anatomical illustration; while students of anatomy learn methods of expression as well as these conventions. iSTot until the student of anatomy has attempted to express what he sees by means of the perspective, shades and high lights, does he really observe well, and no one who studies morphology sees to the greatest advantage unless he sketches constantly or at least makes diagrammatic drawings.
Nowhere in our teaching of anatomy is the value of an efficient teacher demonstrated better than in this course on drawing. The student exerts himself to the utmost in representing an object on a flat surface by means of black and white and then with a few marks from the teacher's pencil and erasures with his rubber the picture is brought out as by magic. Later he is instructed how to correct missteps, and only when he has exhausted all of his resources does the teacher again take the pencil into his own hand. The few strokes which are then used to perfect the interpretation are as a revelation to the student and mean the most to him because he has striven for the same result. Students who do not take the course visit it frequently and are inspired by what takes place in it. Serving as an example, it reflects upon all of the work of the department and permeates the work of the other courses.
Another course which must not be left unmentioned is the journal club. Its membership is limited to ten and the work of the students is energetic and enthusiastic. This spirit depends entirely upon the leader, who selects the articles to be reported with great care. Each student gives a report of twenty minutes' duration every third week. As most of the articles reported are in foreign languages, a good reading knowledge of French and German is required, and during the past year a number of Italian and Spanish articles have been reported also, since several of the students commanded these languages. This proved to be
The Anatomical Eecord. 331
of value to the teacher, for the prolific Ramon y Cajal publishes in Spanish. The students have shown such a decided interest in collateral reading that a number of private reading clubs have been organized, one of which was limited to those who speak German fluently, as all reports were made in this language.
It is not necessary to defend journal clubs and the reading of scientific articles to those who are interested in graduate work, for they believe it to be a necessity in real work, but those who are opposed to more serious efforts on the part of medical students will probably question very much such expenditure of time. However, these efforts are not new in countries where medicine is a learned profession, and where medical schools are also intended to promote medical science. In those countries many of the great leaders in biology are anatomists, and this country gives promise of a development in the same direction With us the demand for this kind of intellectual effort came partly from the students, and we gladly met it. It is gratifying to us to see study of this kind increase, for through it we shall receive our much-needed new growth of medical scientists, which, of course, must also include our future anatomists.
Other and shorter elective courses need not be described in detail, for they are not constant from year to year, but are changing to meet the conditions brought about by an ever-shifting staff. The work in these courses is always informal, often along the line of the teacher's own individual work, and frequently they end by formulating problems for students to investigate. Thus there is always a student or two working in human embryology; in case his interest does not lag it is quite easy to direct it towards a special topic, and in this way most of the work on human embryology which has been published from this laboratory was started.
I have expressed myself repeatedly in favor of anatomical departments as conservators of anatomical science, where all members of the departments are students interested in one or more of its subdivisions and its further growth.^ The department in a university should be truly a university department and not one that limits itself to instruction which
"The anatomical course and laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, 1896 ; Liberty in medical education. Philadelphia Medical .Journal, 1809 ; On the value of research in the medical school. Michigan Alumnus, 1904 ; Wilhelm His, Amer. Jour. Anat., 1905 ; On the teaching of anatomy, Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 1905; On some recent text-books of anatomy, Ibid., 190G; On some points of importance to anatomists, Anatomical Record, Vol. 1. and Science, 1907.
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meets the bare needs of medicine and surgery. Were this the case we should return to the more economical arrangement in which the modicum of anatomy is taught by a busy practitioner, that is, one who knows what is practical, during the few spare hours a week he has to devote to anatomy as an avocation.
But what has research to do with the teaching of anatomy? In a number of prominent American medical schools the professor of anatomy is easily made and with similar ease shifts to some other subject, limiting his teaching to the practical needs of medicine according to some textbook. This method was almost universal with us a generation ago, and in Europe a century ago. In fact, we read of the frequent rotation of chairs in order to keep the professors from becoming narrow. But things have changed and now no one would think of mastering any one of the great subdivisions of medicine, like anatomy, without devoting the best portion of his life to its study. It is out of the question for an anatomist of this kind to turn his entire stock of knowledge over to the students, but he can show them what his science means to the world, how it overcame great difficulties and along what lines it is growing. He teaches anatomical methods, and in fact these are of the greatest value to physicians who would be scientific rather than technical; who view their calling as a profession and not as a trade. Wlien anatomical reasoning is put uppermost the technical details are by no means neglected, for they are given by the inductive method in practical laboratory courses.
Indeed, the very nature of our students, especially of those who have given much thought to biological subjects or had already contributed to the science, made it necessary that the subject of anatomy be presented from a scientific standpoint. Some of these students also naturally demanded more advanced work which often formulated itself into problems. They were always among the best students and they are among those who have distinguished themselves since graduation in scientific as well as in clinical subjects.
Nothing is of more importance to a capable student than to be started aright in scientific work early in his career, and if he is to contribute to science he must begin before he is too old. This can all be done to advantage in a medical course, provided that it is liberal and not stereotyped, and that the principle of equivalents is recognizd by making many of the courses elective. Under these conditions much time, which otherwise would be dissipated, can be devoted to a single line of thought.
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According to present arrangements about a year's time in the four years' medical course can be devoted to elective studies, and if this be increased by receiving credit for the required work, which may have been done elsewhere, ample time is obtained to undertake serious scientific work in anatomy. Then for those who "have seen the light" it is perfectly clear that a student who has formulated a problem and has solved it, has established for himself a standard of excellence which will permeate all of his subsequent work. The contribution thus made, though often small, is added to the stock of knowledge, as well as to his own credit, which, as the first dime in an account in a savings bank, is the most important deposit.
If, as is frequently asserted, the chief difference between the work of graduate medical students and of other graduate students, as those of zoology and of chemistry who are also professional, is that the latter undertake research work while the former do not, then the plan given above removes the difference in principle at least. However, in the case of the professional student of zoology or of chemistry the successful research, which is given in the form of a dissertation, becomes the chief test for his doctorate, while with the medical student no account is taken of it. He does the work for the love of it and usually against opposition. By our present arrangement the time devoted to scientific work counts as time towards the medical degree, but no premium is placed upon a successful effort. At the University of Chicago and elsewhere those who carry their work to a successful termination become candidates for the degree of Ph.D., without disturbing in any serious way their medical course, and this method of procedure is considered the best by many educators. The time is at hand, it seems to me, to make the medical degree fully equal to the philosophical, and this will be done when we also require for it a dissertation containing a contribution to knowledge. Since our medical course is partly elective, and since a number of our better students elect research work and publish their results, I hope to see the day when they are at least permitted to present these results as one of the requirements for the degree of doctor of medicine. In case this is done it will call for a revision of our present system of examination, which, in my opinion, is now in a deplorable condition. In order to aid in bringing about this revision I have always held but a single, and largely practical, examination in anatomy to test the students' proficiency in the subject, but no examinations at the end of individual courses. When examinations for the degree are set to test the students"
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working knowledge in the larger subjects and the numerous course examinations are omitted, it will not be difficult to value justly a given dissertation.
Since students elect courses because they desire special information and believe in the teachers that give them, it follows that the spirit in such courses is always the best. Under such circumstances a critical insight is most easily attained, and this is what we are striving for in all of our educational efforts. Just in this respect the occidental is superior to the oriental method. But to develop it to the fullest, research work must be undertaken, and this is the chief plea from the students' standpoint for such work. Furthermore, research work will enable us to develop scientists in the medical branches, and the call for them has never been greater than it is to-day. In fact, it is so great that many of our positions in anatomy are filled by philosophical doctors who are not always in sympathy with the problems of medical education.
This brings me to the question of the relation of research work to the teachers of anatomy in a university. As soon as the culture of a nation has reached a plane in which it is desired to utilize to the utmost scientific discoveries as a means towards progres, it becomes necessary for the teachers in universities to be fruitful investigators. Not only must they be masters in their respective professions, but they must also be leaders in them and be able to improve them. A nation that cannot make guns cannot use them, and victories cannot be won unless weapons are constantly improved. The university teacher must have more than literary command of his subject ; he must also be an investigator and go back to nature for information. There he will find his inexhaustible teacher. A university teacher of this kind finds an abundance of problems for investigation in his daily routine while he is leading beginners, and if he does not his chances of becoming a pedant, or even less, are excellent. Instinctively the better students listen to the teachers who are recognized authorities in their respective branches and heed their advice. The recognition that this instinct is becoming more pronounced from year to year is one of the most hopeful signs in our higher development today. The teachers should be the more experienced older students, working harmoniously with the younger ones, showing constantly that they are serious and that the work is worth while. All this is most likely to happen when the teachers are investigators and their work is elective. ^
Every member of our staff is placed under these conditions. For conservative reasons all take part in the obligatory courses and each is
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encouraged to offer an elective course in which, by the wa}', he may tesi his pedagogical ideals. As all members of the staff have been engaged in scientific work either here or elsewhere before they were appointed, it is relatively easy for them to continue their own studies during the academic year. Every encouragement is given in this direction. Those who make themselves felt as teachers and investigators are promoted or are called to other universities, and if this principle of adjustment between scientific achievement and worldly career were general that dreadful disease of anatomical departments due to inbreeding would be cured.
It has been the aim of a number of American anatomists to elevate the status of our profession, for it has been resting as a compressed buffer between surgery on the one hand and zoology on the other. The former has been squeezing out the worldly part and the latter the spiritual. Through a variety of efforts anatomy has reclaimed her own and is beginning to make herself felt through the Association, the Wistar Institute, journals, and strong university departments, one of which comes to light each year. As a contribution towards the organization of the latter the above is written, with the hope that it will aid the development of the science of anatomv as well as of medical education.
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A Note on the Question of Gill-Position in Myxinoids.
BY
CHARLES R. STOCKARD. Cornell University Medical College, New York City.
In a recent number of this journal Johnston ('08) has made reference to the gill condition in Myxinoids. Dr. Johnston refers in this connection to a former criticism I ('06) made of his position regarding the gills in Bdellostoma. It may have been unintentional on his part, but in attempting to reply to this criticism Johnston has completely evaded the main issue with which I disagreed.
In his paper on the morphology of the vertebrate head Johnston ('05) based conclusions on incorrect results advanced by Price ('96), although these results had been subsequently rectified by Dean ('99) and Price ('04). This unfamiliarity with the literature I mentioned through justice to Price's more recent work and Dean's extended study on the development of Bdellostoma, the latter antedating Johnston's paper by five years. Johnston excuses himself for not having seen Price's more recent paper, which only shortly preceded his, but makes no mention of having overlooked Dean's, for which there was no excuse.
Johnston concluded that the gills in Myxinoids belong originally to the trunk, since during development a long series (twenty-three or twenty-four gills) in front of the permanent ones are lost, a la Price's earlier paper. This conclusion is entirely erroneous, since the gills of Myxinoids, during the development of each individual, arise in the head and follow one another at regular intervals from the hyomandibular back to the most posterior member of the series. The adult trunk position Dean had attributed to a process of shifting, not of disappearance. I found that the gills attain their adult trunk position in a manner as follows: A rapid growth area is established between the third gill following the mouth and the fourth, which gives rise to a long region between the head and the most anterior gill of the adult series. This growth, together with the development of the large club muscle and the loose connection of the gill-lappet tissue with the dorsal musculature, accounts for the final trunk position of the gills.
The assumption that the gills belong originally to the trunk is the important issue on which I disagreed with Johnston, and to this he
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makes no reply. He based considerable speculation on the trunk-gills of Myxinoids and went so far (p. 228) as to suggest that the distribution of the ramus intestinalis of the vagus nerve was coextensive with the primitive gill region. In other words, the stomach of vertebrates has its vagus innervation on account of its once having been a part of the gill region. This reasoning is highly hypothetical, and while one may still hold such a view, the fact is certain, that no support for it is furnished by the gills in Bdellostoma, which do not originally belong to the trunk but arise in the head region.
Johnston's criticism is entirely aside from the results presented in my former paper, none of which he attacks. He criticises justly, however, a carelessly constructed sentence in my review of literature. This sentence must have been due to an oversight, as would be evident to the reader, who finds that it is contradicted by facts clearly brought out in the body of the paper. The extended criticism made of the sentence tends to avoid the real issue and might convey the idea that Johnston was attacking my conclusions, while such is not the case On the other hand, Johnston uses the facts furnished by my work to account for the condition of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve in Myxinoids.
PAPERS CITED.
Dean, B., '99.— On the Embryology of Bdellostoma Stoutl. A General Account of Myxinoid Development from the Egg and Segmentation to Hatching. Festschr. z. 70 Geburtstage C. v. Kuppfer. Jena, pp. 221-276.
Johnston, J. B., '05. — The Morphology of the Vertebrate Head from the Viewpoint of the Functional Divisions of the Nervous System. Jour. Comp. Neur, and Psychol., XV, pp. 175-275.
Johnston, J. B., '08. — A Note on the Presence or Absence of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve in Myxinoids. Anatom. Record, II, pp. 233-239.
Pbice, G. C, '96. — Some Points in the Development of a Myxinoid (Bdellostoma Stouti Loc). Verhand. der Anatom. Gesellsch. 10 Versammlung, Berlin, pp. 81-86.
Price, G. C, '04. — A Further Study of the Development of the Excretory Organs in Bdellostoma Stouti. Amer. Jour. Anatomy, IV, pp. 117-138.
Stockabd, C. R., '06. — The Development of the Mouth and Gills in Bdellostoma Stouti. Amer. Jour. Anatomy, V, pp. 481-517.
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