Talk:2017 Group Project 3

2017-10-10T23:15:25Z

Z5059949:

{{ANAT2341Project2017discussion}}



==Suggested Starting Places==
[[User:Z8600021|Mark Hill]] ([[User talk:Z8600021|talk]]) 10:15, 14 August 2017 (AEST) OK Group 3 below are some starting places.

{{Heart Links}}

PubMed Searches: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Heart+Development ''Heart Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Cardiac+Development ''Cardiac Development'']

BMC Dev Biol Search: [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcdevbiol/search/results?terms=Heart+Development ''Heart Development'']

Recent papers

<pubmed limit=5>Heart+Development</pubmed>

==Group Topic Intro==

=Peer Review=

'''Peer review group 3'''

* The project contained both developmental origin, timeline, signalling processes, current research and findings, animals model and abnormal development sections. The project therefore has all the sections which were a requirement for the project.
* Overall, I think the project was good. It was well written, easy to understand as a student, the sections correlated well and the context was good. I especially liked the signalling section, even though some context is missing. I think the idea of of addition a treatment part to project is a good but I could not find it in the project. As mentioned some context is missing in the notch pathway, sonic hedgehog and retinoic acid sections.
* The project has a good introduction. You have a clear idea of what you are about the read, which is nice.
* The layout could be a lot better, I think the picture location could be adjusted. In the developmental origin part, the pictures make the section look very confusing. Some of the subheadings, like the abnormal development is pushed to side by the pictures, so when you scroll down the project you miss it.
* In general, the pictures miss their caption, sources and number. Therefore, you do not know which picture there is referred to when you are reading the project. I miss some more pictures in the developmental sections.
* In the developmental origin section I think the last sentence is very long. You get so much information in one sentence that you sometimes forget what you just read.
* The timeline is easy to read and understand. Could contain some key discoveries.
* Thought the glossary of terms is a nice addition to the project.
* Overall the referencing is good, but in some sections like primary heart field and heart tube formation, the referencing is missing. In some parts the articles/or links is at the bottom of the section, which makes it a little confusing.
* I don’t feel like the primary heart field and heart tube formation correlates very well with the secondary heart field and cardiac looping section. When I start reading the latter I feel like om starting on something completely new instead of continuing reading on the heart developing. I get the feeling I am reading two different persons work, and some work should be put into these sections to make it feel more fluent.

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Don’t forget to remove the hyperlinks that are under ‘Heart’ at the beginning of the page. Remove student numbers from the page. Add a brief description under images so that readers will understand what the image is showing. Remember to move references that are written in some sections to the ‘References’ subheading. The Notch Pathway is incomplete.

Subheadings and content that have been used show a good understanding of the topic area. The use of a table for the ‘Development Timeline’ shows the teams innovativeness. The use of simple sentences in the table allows readers to understand content simply. References have been done well, they are cited properly. The team have used their own images to show their understanding of the heart. The images that they have used have been properly cited: there are references, copyright statements and the Student Image template. Thorough description of abnormal development, animal models and current research which shows the comprehensive research that was done for the heart. The use of Glossary of Terms is helpful to readers who may not understand what some terms are.

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Use of headings and subheadings break this complex developmental process in to understandable, clear sections.
The images chosen to reinforce the material are appropriate and I particularly like that time has been taken to draw a number of these.
There does seem to be an awful lot of information, and I wonder if this can be cut down at all. For example there is the section on signaling during development, which is a more complex section to understand. This is greatly helped by the diagrams but I can see that there are additional headings that are yet to have information added. It might be an idea to pick a few signaling pathways that occur and really perfect those. I think it has the potential to become very confusing to the reader otherwise.
It is very useful to the reader that you have included a glossary of terms, however I wonder if it may be more effective if this table is placed at the beginning of the page, or as a link at the top that can be opened up, so as the reader can familirise themselves with the terms prior to reading the page.
The page appears to be referenced extensively throughout and appropriately. Good job

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Overall, this page has a good structure and was enjoyable to read. The headings and subheadings were clear and made it easier to understand the development process of the Heart. Perhaps it would be better to include relevant background information of the heart before jumping into the developmental process straightaway. There is a good amount of images (and well-drawn images) accompanying the text which aided in understanding the content, however some were not labelled with their appropriate descriptions. Most parts were cited correctly and properly, however some areas weren't cited at all such as "Current Research and Findings and "Cardiac Stem Cells". Also, some references were not done properly, check the "Primary Heart Field and Heart Tube Formation" section. Some sections were left blank, however I assume they will be completed over time. Glossary of terms was clever and made the content easier to understand (the heart is quite complicated to understand). Well done overall.

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Overall, this page had a finished feel because the page is so heavily packed with information, there are some sections that were not completed. There is however, a lot of information that may leave the reader feeling a bit overwhelmed. Some sections are also hard to understand and comprehend especially due to the heavy use of biotechnological jargon (ie. SMAD-dependent, SMAD-independent pathways, β-catenin). A terminology/glossary section would be extremely helpful for this issue. I'd advise using more images in "Abnormal Development" (ie. x-rays or physical observations of sufferers) to help the reader visualise such abnormalities. Referencing under images should be moved to the references section and should be referenced using the '''''< ref >''' '''< / ref >''''' if in text. Overall, there is a lot of information, some of which is not necessarily important. I'd advise to cut down, make paragraphs more simple and straight to the point, and use images to help the reader visually understand and comprehend.

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Introduction is very good and explains a lot. Under the heading “Primary heart field and heart tube formation” – the reference at the bottom should be removed.
Secondary heart field and cardiac looping: First sentence doesn’t really make sense, maybe switch it up a bit.
Under current research and findings you have labelled a figure figure 1, when it is not the first figure in your wiki page, seems a little confusing. Images also don’t have appriopriate copyright info, description and referencing. Also figure 2 is placed right in the middle of the sentence, maybe put it to the right so it doesn’t interrupt reading.
Information could be formatted better under the heading atrial septal defect! Maybe some subheadings for the different defects? Same goes with the ventricular septal defect, its easier to read when things are broken up. Glossary is very good!

All the information written on your page is very well written and easily understood.
Images could be labelled better, add a figure to each of them as when you are referring to figure 1 and 2 in your writing, the images aren’t labelled so its hard to tell what image you are referring to.
With references, I don’t like how there is a bunch at the end of some headings? Could be because you still need to read them but looks messy.
There is an overwhelming amount of information, so good job on doing so much research but it was quite tedious to read, not sure if this much information is needed? But it is very hard to fault your wiki page so this might be a bit picky.

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The introduction is a brief and clear overview of the page. I liked how you acknowledged what your page will explore about the heart development. The “Developmental origin” subheading had good information and good diagrams in addition. However, I would adjust your layout a bit in this section so that the diagrams don’t look so awkward. You could do this by breaking down that second paragraph. The timeline provided a brief overview but I would also suggest adding another column for images. There is also a spelling error on week 5 – it says “srtats” where it should be “starts”.
As you go into “primary heart field and heart tube formation”, “secondary heart field and cardiac looping” and the next few sections, the references appear at the bottom of the sections. You should fix this so that they only appear in the reference list at the end. You could also probably bold “heart tube fusion”, “heart looping” and other terms in your developmental timeline since you explore them in depth.
The “developmental signalling process” subheading is very detailed. Since you also have a few more parts to complete into this section, it might be better to try to minimise some of the text. Your inclusion of current research is good and unique as you explore one paper in depth. However, I would suggest that you find another one or two. The “animal models” subheading should probably have a diagram or two of the referenced research papers if possible. Again with “abnormal development” subheading I would suggest some more images to see what these defects look like and possibly cutting down some text. In “future questions” you might also be able to provide a possible direction research might take to potentially answer this question. Also, you had a very good, long list of references.

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The page goes through everything required for the project page. It would be nice if the pictures on the page have a figure number and a short title on the figures, so it is easier for the reader to understand what figure belongs to what part of the section. A figure number on the picture makes it able for the writer to refer to a specific picture. There is a good use of tables and self-drawn figures/picture. This makes the page clearer and more readable. There are some references on the page that needs a different formatting, so it is not fully viewed in the sections. It is important that the references are given right after the specific section and not at the bottom of the section.

*'''The Introduction''' section gives a good excitement for the reader before reading the page. This gives an idea of what information to expect from the page. A little section about the anatomy of the heart and a picture could give a better preparation for the reader to understand the developmental part of the heart.
*'''The Development Origin''' section has a bit confusing layout.
*I like that the '''Cardiac Neural Crest and Outflow tract''' sections have a self-drawn picture, but maybe you can draw it a bit clearer, so it is easier to read the writing and understand the figure There is no figure text on the page of the figure.
*'''Current Research And Findings, Animal Models and Abnormal Development:''' These sections have a bit of a messy layout. The context is good, but there I a lot of text and pictures kind of mingling into each other. You could make these sections more separate in the layout.
*'''The Glossary of terms''' helps the reader a lot.

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The headings were all neat, concise and impressive. It successfully highlighted and sectioned the key topics in the development of the heart. The addition of the technical signalling pathways and the details of the development were well summarised with appropriate references in superscript format. There was a nice variety of visual resources, both hand drawn and externally sourced. Most images have their copyright approval and reference included perfectly, except "Figure 1 Morphological defects in CTCF mutant embryonic hearts" and "Figure 2 - defects of mitochondria in CTCF mutant hearts". There was a nice flow throughout the page through the use of effective paragraph sectioning. The table for the glossary of terms was really useful and neat.

Some of the images didn't have a box around it and these figures were not labelled, this should be easily changed in the edit mode. Some of the hand drawn images were somewhat unclear, due to the writing as well as the rough outline of the heart. Signatures should also be removed. The references were also retained in the bottom of the sections. It was a confusing because it wasn't next to any paragraphs that needed to be referenced. A reference was also repeated in this section.

''For example:''
"This image is based upon Robert H Anderson, Sandra Webb, Nigel A Brown, Wouter Lamers, Antoon Moorman Development of the heart: (3) formation of the ventricular outflow tracts, arterial valves, and intrapericardial arterial trunks. Heart: 2003, 89(9);1110-8 PubMed 12923046

Robert H Anderson, Sandra Webb, Nigel A Brown, Wouter Lamers, Antoon Moorman Development of the heart: (3) formation of the ventricular outflow tracts, arterial valves, and intrapericardial arterial trunks. Heart: 2003, 89(9);1110-8 PubMed 12923046

Marc Sylva, Maurice J B van den Hoff, Antoon F M Moorman Development of the human heart. Am. J. Med. Genet. A: 2014, 164A(6);1347-71 PubMed 23633400"

Finally, there is a great variety of reputable sources of information. The only thing that needs changing is that the reference list should be revised. Some were left as a link and the list were inconsistent with its reference format.

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This wikipage had all the sections required for this assignment and the team was very detailed in their content. There was also a good amount of referencing. However for certain areas, the entire reference was there instead of just the number. Also, the student numbers should be removed from the page. There was also a good number of photos used and it was good that they had a mix between self-drawn images and images obtained online. However, a way that could improve the images would be to add a description or a caption under each figure so it's easier to know what the picture is about. Some photos in this article lacked description, reference and copyright information, so that could be added as well. For most of the article, I can see that the team carried out a great amount of research for this topic, however it was a little difficult to understand some parts as they were very lengthy and slightly too content heavy. For the developmental timeline, the use of a table was good but the information could be presented in a more concise manner and the headings could be slightly more prominent to make it more readable. The signalling processes was also very well researched but quite lengthy, perhaps a few main signalling pathways could be chosen instead. For the abnormal developments, each abnormalities were well researched on. Perhaps images could be added to show the abnormalities and also maybe one or two more defects would be good. Overall, I think this group did a great job in researching and providing information on this wikipage. Maybe with a bit of tweaking here and there to make it more concise and readable, this wikipage would make a really good project.

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The introduction was very good! I like how it introduced why the heart is so critical in early development, explained what you were going to discuss and where there would be gaps due to a lack of medical knowledge. The information in developmental origin and the developmental timeline is really great, however, I think you need to consider joining these two headings and not splitting them into one. You also state in developmental origin "as seen in figure two", however, none of your images have figure titles so I am not sure which figure you're actually referring to. The timeline is a good basic reference point, so I think it would be nice for it to be before the origin outline as it gives the basics which you then go into more detail about. I like that you put in the developmental signalling processes and then outlined each one of these, obviously the rest of those processes that have subheadings but no information just need to be finished. The current research is really interesting, again images just need a figure of some sort. The future questions section is a little confusing as I'm not sure if that's an area you're going to go into more depth over or if that's a future question you think research should look in to? So a clarification would be good. The glossary of terms is super helpful and all referencing looks good!

User talk:Z5059949

2017-10-10T23:14:48Z

Z5059949:

2017-10-09T09:45:41Z

Z5059949: Created page with "Group 2 Feedback - Kidney I found the introduction to the kidney didn't flow very nicely and each sentence and paragraph were just points added in. Also, the grammar and punc..."

Talk:2017 Group Project 2

2017-10-09T09:45:20Z

Z5059949:

{{ANAT2341Project2017discussion}}



[[User:Z8600021|Mark Hill]] ([[User talk:Z8600021|talk]]) 10:15, 14 August 2017 (AEST) OK Group 2 below are some starting places.

{{Renal Links}}

PubMed Searches: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Renal+Development ''Renal Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Kidney+Development ''Kidney Development'']

BMC Dev Biol Search: [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcdevbiol/search/results?terms=Renal+Development ''Renal Development'']

Recent papers

<pubmed limit=5>Renal+Development</pubmed>

Yay.

[[User:Z5178275|Z5178275]] ([[User talk:Z5178275|talk]]) 16:48, 10 August 2017 (AEST) I'm keen to do anything, but I think the brain is a little to complex for me. It also seems like a lot of other groups want to do that as well.

Cynthia here, I don't want to do the brain lol. I don't mind anything else though

[[User:Z5076039|Z5076039]] ([[User talk:Z5076039|talk]]) 17:03, 10 August 2017 (AEST)

=Peer Reviews=
This page is very informative and easy to read. I like the way it begins with the anatomy of the kidney in the developed human, and then progresses through its embryological development. The inclusion of developmental timeline table aids the flow of the page. Images are well integrated into the page with informative descriptions, however are not correctly referenced and do include the suitable Copyright statement. The page references well, but many sections are still unfinished. The page would benefit from a glossary at the end, and the "general info on the renal system" section should be included higher up on the page, or integrated into one of the other sections such as under the "kidney" heading. This page is very easy to read, but still needs some work.

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References should be cited correctly, i.e. don’t leave the links in the paragraphs and use proper citation. The images used should include references, copyright statements as well as the Student Image template required. If there are copyright images the team could be innovative and use their own diagrams to display structures. Use references for the ‘Timeline of Kidney Embryology’ to show that a variety of sources were used to complete the table. Current Research and Future Questions subheading is incomplete. Glossary of terms could be used to explain certain words, for example explaining in simple terms what GDNF and RET are.

Subheadings and content that have been used show a good understanding of the topic area. The team has bolded important words in relation to the kidney structure. The team has also placed a description under the images which allows readers to understand what the image is showing. The use of a table of ‘Timeline of Kidney’ allows readers to understand the content of the wikipage easily (maybe add images to the table). The team has shown comprehensive research; however, they need to show more referencing of sources to display the research that they have done.

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Overall this seems like a very well put together project and is very informative and easy to follow, and enjoyable to read. There is an appropriate balance of both text and visual diagrams, which greatly helped my understanding of the development of the kidneys. Figure 4 appears to be missing a reference. I do think perhaps an animation to explain nephron development may add additional clarity, and would provide another level of interaction for the reader. Perhaps also think about adding a student drawn diagram. The table is a great way to display the developmental stages in an easy to read manner.
The ‘blood supply’ section appears to be copy and paste which I assume will be rewritten? The section on current research is simply a list of PubMed links, and should be expanded to display content that is informative to the reader. Likewise, ‘questions for the future’ and ‘general info on the renal system’ remain as headings without any accompanying information. I think the questions for the future could be an interesting section, however general info I would think will have been covered elsewhere in the project.
The topic has clearly been researched well, and is well referenced, with most references being from scientific papers.
All in all I think this is a high quality project, that will only require a few additional tweaks to take it to the next level.

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The page flows very well and is easy to read. However, there is incorrect citing or no citing at all for images and texts which can trigger copyright issues, in some sections (mostly the beginning) of the page. The structure and anatomical position is extremely easy to read and comprehend, as well as the use of a table for development. Id advise to insert more images for development and the remaining sections to help the reader visualise the process instead of being overwhelmed by the information. Developmental abnormalities seem to contain information not necessarily needed. Maybe add the 5 paragraphs above "Kidney developmental abnormalities are diverse and they correspond to defects at different stages of kidney development" statement in a separate research topic. Good use of images for abnormalities though. Overall, the page is quite informative and has been researched effectively. It could be improved by slight tweaks in format aforementioned and correct referencing.

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I found the introduction to the kidney didn't flow very nicely and each sentence and paragraph were just points added in. Also, the grammar and punctuation in the introduction paragraph needs to be edited. The final thing that needs to be altered in the introduction paragraph is the links that have just been placed in. I'm not sure if they are the references but if so they need to be referenced correctly. The anatomical position and kidney structure are written really well! The only improvement I could make is with figure one and two reference them within the writing e.g. "Their inner structure can be divided into 2 main areas: the outer cortex, and the inner medulla, as illustrated in Figure 2", otherwise this section is really great. The timeline of the kidney embryology is good - basic outline which makes it easy to follow such a complex process. To make the page flow in a more succinct manner I think it would be good to put the kidney timeline under the kidney development heading instead of separating the two as the kidney development information expands on the timeline really well. The kidney development information is really good, and I think the images really complete it. However, the link at the end of nephrogenesis needs to be referenced correctly with intext. Also under blood supply, it says "THIS IS COPY AND PASTE" so I'm not sure if that's copied off another page or your own notes but that needs to be fixed. The abnormality section was really good and current research is a really interesting thing to include, that section just needs some more information which I'm sure you guys are already on top of! Overall its a really great page, good effort.

User:Z5059949

2017-10-09T09:43:17Z

Z5059949:

{{ANAT2341ProjectGroup2017table}}

Here is the [[Student Page]] demonstration page I showed in the Practical class.

Use this page to practice editing and don't forget to add a topic to the [[2017 Group Project 1]] page.

Feedback for Group 2 - Kidney
I found the introduction to the kidney didn't flow very nicely and each sentence and paragraph were just points added in. Also, the grammar and punctuation in the introduction paragraph needs to be edited. The final thing that needs to be altered in the introduction paragraph is the links that have just been placed in. I'm not sure if they are the references but if so they need to be referenced correctly. The anatomical position and kidney structure are written really well! The only improvement I could make is with figure one and two reference them within the writing e.g. "Their inner structure can be divided into 2 main areas: the outer cortex, and the inner medulla, as illustrated in Figure 2", otherwise this section is really great. The timeline of the kidney embryology is good - basic outline which makes it easy to follow such a complex process. To make the page flow in a more succinct manner I think it would be good to put the kidney timeline under the kidney development heading instead of separating the two as the kidney development information expands on the timeline really well. The kidney development information is really good, and I think the images really complete it. However, the link at the end of nephrogenesis needs to be referenced correctly with intext. Also under blood supply, it says "THIS IS COPY AND PASTE" so I'm not sure if that's copied off another page or your own notes but that needs to be fixed. The abnormality section was really good and current research is a really interesting thing to include, that section just needs some more information which I'm sure you guys are already on top of! Overall its a really great page, good effort.

 
{{2017ANAT2341 footer}}

[[Student Page]]

[[File:Chicken embryo E-cad and P-cad gastrulation.png|500px]]

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery?term=embryo ''embryo'']

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery?term=notochord ''notochord'']

<pubmed>28786202</pubmed>

2017 Group Project 1

2017-10-05T05:51:25Z

Z5059949:

{{ANAT2341Project2017header}}

=Cerebral Cortex=

[[User:Z8600021|Mark Hill]] ([[User talk:Z8600021|talk]]) 15:59, 14 September 2017 (AEST) Feedback
* lots of sub-headings, but no actual text.
* no defined structure to the sequence of sub-headings.
* no research images related to what is an extensively researched topic.
* historic background of key research findings, put our understanding today in perspective.
* Lon list of abnormalities, with no description.

==Introduction==
( z5178570 )
====What is it?====

The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the human brain and is thought to be the main control centre, playing an essential role in cognitive function, memory, sensation and association. The cerebral cortex consists of the thin layer of the grey matter, around 2-4 mm in thickness, that surrounds the cerebrum, and consists of ~ 10 billion nerve cell bodies and dendrites.

The development of the cerebral cortex involves differentiation and migration of neurons, which are organised into six horizontal layers. I. Molecular layer, II. External granular layer , III. external pyramidal, IV. internal granular layer, V. internal pyramidal layer, VI. multiform layer. These individual layers organise the capacity for interconnections between both input and output signals.

====Histology of Cerebral Cortex====

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024757/ [[User:Z5177691|Z5177691]] ([[User talk:Z5177691|talk]]) 22:37, 23 August 2017 (AEST)

[[File:Stage 22 image 217.jpg | 800px]]
 

==Early Development of the Brain==
( z5059949 )

The brain begins to develop during the third week when the neural plate and tube derive from the outer most layer of embryonic cells, the neuroectoderm. The development of the brain is from the neural plate which folds to form the neural groove and then curls forming the neural tube, which is cranial to the fourth pair of somites, and eventually, forms the three primary brain vesicles <ref name="lecture"> Embryology.med.unsw.edu.au. (2017). Lecture - Ectoderm Development - Embryology. [online] Available at: https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Lecture_-_Ectoderm_Development. </ref>.

Neuroprogenitor cells proliferate, migrate, and differentiate to form specific areas of the brain <ref name="textbook"/>.

During week four fusion of the neural folds in the cranial region and closure of the rostral neuropore form three primary brain vesicles from which the brain develops <ref name="lecture"/>:
*Forebrain/Prosecephalon
*Midbrain/Mesencephalon
*Hindbrain/Rhombencephalone

From there three primary vesicles, there is a further division at the anterior extremity of the medullary canal into five secondary vesicles during week five. These are fundamental divisions of the adult brain and communicate freely with each other <ref name="Gray"> Gray, H. (1977). Gray's Anatomy. New York, New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. </ref>. They are <ref name ="textbook"> Moore, K., Persaud, T. and Torchia, M. (2015). The developing human. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. </ref>:
*Telencephalon: endbrain, forms cerebral hemispheres - derived from Prosecephalon
*Diencephalon: between brain, forms optic outgrowth - derived from Prosecephalon
*Mesencephalon: undivided
*Metencephalon: posterior to the brain - derived from Rhomabencephalon
*Myelencephalon: medulla - derived from Rhomabencephalon
In the beginning, these five divisions are uniform in size and shape but quickly differentiate at various rates <ref name="Gray"/>.

'''Brain Flexures'''

During the fifth week, the embryonic brain undergoes rapid growth folding the neural tube and consequently resulting in three brain flexures. These are <ref name="lecture"/>:
*Cephalic flexure - pushes mesencephalon upwards
*Cervical flexure - between brain stem and spinal cord at the junction of the spinal cord and hindbrain
*Pontine flexure - generates fourth ventricle; produced in the opposite direction as a result of later unequal brain growth, resulting in the thinning of the roof of the hindbrain <ref name="Gray"/>
The primordial brain initially has the same basic structure as the developing spinal cord, however consideration variations in the outline of transverse sections at different levels of the brain and in the position of the gray and white matter are produced by the brain flexures <ref name="textbook"/>. The sulcus limitans (the floor of the fourth ventricle) extends cranially to the junction of the midbrain and forebrain, and the alar and basal plates are recognisable only in the midbrain and hindbrain <ref name="textbook"/>.

==Development of Cerebral Cortex==
(z5177691)

'''Main classes of neurons''' <ref><pubmed> PMC3876965 </pubmed></ref>
*'''Projection neurons:''' excitatory neurons (glutamatergic) with axons that project to distant targets and are generated by progenitors in the dorsal pallium of the telencephalon. The have a typical pyramidal structure and send signals to various regions of the brain and neocortex.
*'''Interneurons:''' inhibitory neurons (GABAergic) that have local connections within the cortex and are generated in the subpallium of the telecephalon in the ventral proliferative zone. These neurons have to migrate to the neocortex area.

'''Key developmental zones in the human cortex: '''
*Ventricular zone
*Subventricular zone
**Inner Subventricular Zone
**Outer Subventricular zone
*Intermediate Zone
*Preplate: neural progenitor cells split into 2 regions
**Marginal zone:
**Subplate:
*Cortical Plate: where the 6 layers of the cortex form, exists in between the subplate and the marginal zone

===='''Timeline of Corticogenesis'''====
The dorsolateral wall of the telencephalon is initially made up of undifferentiated neuroepithelial cells at the beginning of development. The cells are neural stem cells, capable of dividing into various neuronal subtypes. The timing of birth for these neuronal subtypes determines the location (e.g fate) of the neurons so that specific connections and cortical structure are achieved. "E" relates to embryonic day in relation to corticogenesis.

{| class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f4a941" | DAY
! style="background:#f4a941" | DEVELOPMENT
|-
| E30|| Progenitors in the dorsal telencephalon divide symmetrically and give rise to the initial '''ventricular zone (VZ)''', a single layer of cells that attach their "feet" to the cerebral wall and divide. These neurons lay adjacent to the ventricular surface. <ref><pubmed> 18209730 </pubmed></ref>
|-
| E31-32 || Dividing cells from the VZ begin to differentiate into "pioneer" neurons to form the '''preplate.''' These neurons migrate radially and tangentially from the VZ to the pial surface in an upward fashion. These cells are often referred to as '''radial glial cells (RGCs)''' because they contain radial fibers that span the entire embryonic wall from the VZ to the pial surface. These fibers create a "scaffolding" for subsequent migrating neurons to attach to and travel along in order to expand the neocortex. These cells are multipotent cells that divide asymmetrically to produce intermediate precursor cells that can become projection neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes <ref name="cerebral"><pubmed> PMC4334136 </pubmed></ref> . The preplate is referred to as heterogeneous because it contains many developing cell types.
|-
| E40-45 || Cells in the VZ continue to divide symmetrically and give rise to another zone known as the '''subventricular zone (SVZ)'''. This proliferative layer lies above the ventricular zone and is not attached to the ventricular surface. Radial glial cells also populate this area as well as the preplate and many of the cells in the SVZ contribute to the later cortical neurons. The SVZ also separates into the outer subventricular zone (OSVZ) and the inner subventricular zone (ISVZ). The OSVZ continues to expand as it produces more migrating immature neurons and intermediate precursor cells. <ref name="cerebral"/>
|-
| E50-55|| The preplate begins to split into two subsections: the '''marginal zone''' and the '''subplate.''' An intermediate zone forms below the subplate and contains only migrating cells (migrating to the target destination) and no intermediate precursor cells. The '''cortical plate''' also begins to form in between the two regions. Newly born neurons that migrate to the cortical plate are developed '''"inside out"'''. This term "inside-out" means that earlier born cells populate the deep layers first and later born neurons populate the superficial layers of the neocortex by migrating past the deep layers. Therefore, layers 6 is populated before layer 5; layer 5 is populated before layer 4 and so on. Each layer condenses and the neurons are closely packed. As the layers form, the cortex expands. [[File:Stage22 HPA2L.jpg | 300px | thumb | center]]
|}

Migration and division of all six layers of the cortex is completed during the third trimester. Each layer has distinct synaptic connections and cell types that contribute to the specific functions of the cortex.

[[File:Corticogenesis of mouse and humans.jpeg | 600px]]

====Cell Signaling====
(z5178570)

==Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex==
( z5059696)

-layer grey matter outer surface of cerebrum

-2-4mm thickness

-most anterior (rostral) brain region

-outer zone of neuronal tissue (grey matter) containing neuronal cell bodies

-densely packed in humans with over 10 billion nerve cells (about 10% of all the neurons in the brain)

-where much of the neural activities of the cerebrum takes place

-divided left and right hemispheres by longitudinal fissure

-two hemispheres joined by corpus callosum at midline

-divided into functional areas that serve various sensory, motor and cognitive functions

-subdivisions of layers organizing input and output connectivity of resident neurons

-is folded in larger mammals to increase surface area, important allows addition and evolution of a greater diversity functional areas

-gyrus (gyri)= folds/ ridges

-sulcus (sulci)= groove

'''Layers'''

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray754.png

''Layer 1''

-outer layer (pial surface)

-molecular layer, few scattered neurons

-mainly extensions of pyramidal neuron apical dentrite tufts

-some spiny stellate cells

-inputs to apical tufts crucial for feedback interactions in cortex in associative learning and attention

''Layer 2''

-external granular layer

-small pyramidal neurons

-many stellate neurons

''Layer 3''

-external pyramidal layer

-small and medium sized pyramidal neurons

-non-pyramidal neurons with vertically orientated intracortical axons

-layers 1, 2, 3 main target of interhemisphere corticocortical afferent fibres

-layer 3 main source of cortiocortical efferent fibres

''Layer 4''

-internal granular layer

-different types stellate and pyramidal neyrons

-main target thalamocortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons and intra-hemipsheric corticocortical afferents

''Layer 5''

-internal pyramidal layer

-large pyramidal neurons

-give rise to axons leaving cortex and run down to subcortical structures e.g. basal ganglia

-In primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe, this layer contains Betz cells and their axons travel through the internal capsule, the brain stem and the spinal cord forming the corticospinal tract

-which is the main pathway for voluntary motor control

''Layer 6''

-polymorphic/ multiform layer

-few large pyramidal neurons

-many small spindle like pyramidal and multiform neurons

-sends efferent fibers to thalamus forms exact reciprocal interconnection between thalamus and cortex

-connections are both inhibitory and excitatory

'''Other info to add'''

three large surfaces: superolateral surface, medial surface, inferior surface

-surfaces characterised by sulci and gyri

three borders: superomedial border, inferomedial border, inferolateral border

lobes defined by large sulci (fissures)

named according to their relation to bones of skull

1) frontal lobe

2) parietal lobe

3) temporal lobe

4) occipital lobe

'''Blood Supply'''

==Functions of the Cerebral Cortex==
( z5059696)

'''Functional Areas'''

-Motor area (primary motor cortex)

-premotor area (motor association cortex)

-sensory area (pimary somatosensory cortex)

-auditory (acoustic) area

-olfactory area

-visual areas

-occipital eye field

-prefrontal areas (prefrontal cortex)

<html5media height="400" width="500">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE</html5media>

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE

==Abnormalities associated with Cerebral Cortex Development==
( z5093005 ) <ref>Mahfouz, M. (2015). Imaging of cortical formation disorders - DRE 4 - Prof. Dr Mamdouh Mahfouz. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_nTggR7LTE [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>
<ref>Squier, W. and Jansen, A. (2010). Abnormal development of the human cerebral cortex. Journal of Anatomy, [online] 217(4), pp.312-323. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992410/ [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017]. </ref>
<ref>Pang, T., Atefy, R. and Sheen, V. (2008). Malformations of Cortical Development. The Neurologist, [online] 14(3), pp.181-191. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547618/ [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017]. </ref>
<ref>Christopher A, C. (2017). Genetic Malformations of the Human Cerebral Cortex. Neuron, [online] 23(1), pp.19 - 29. Available at: http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(00)80749-7?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627300807497%3Fshowall%3Dtrue [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>

[[File:Disorders of Cortical Formation.png|frame|center|Main stages of cortical development where abnormalities may arise]]
 

===A) Disorders due to abnormal proliferation, growth or differentiation of neuroblasts ===
 
<big><big>'''1) Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)'''</big></big>

'''Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)''' is heterogeneous developmental disorder of uncertain etiology. Focal Cortical Dysplasia is characterised by neurons arranged abnormally in the focal areas of the cerebral cortex as well as disorganisation of layers and very large cells called 'balloon' cells. FCD can affect the areas throughout the brain but occurs dominantly in the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

In all patients who present with epilepsy, FCD is the cause for about approximately 25% of them. 

FCD is of two types: Type I and Type II.

<big><big>'''2) Hemimegalencephaly'''</big></big>

[[File:Hemimegalencephaly.jpg|frame|Hemimegalencephaly]]

A rare congenital disorder that also results from the abnormal proliferation of neuroblasts is Hemimegalencephaly. 

'''Hemimegalencephaly''' is a developmental disorder which consists of a 'hamartomatous' overgrowth (where normal mature cells and tissues normally present in an area of the body, form a tumour-like, benign malformation) on part of all of the cerebral hemisphere.

Hemimegalencephaly accounts for 0.2% of cases of childhood epilepsy. Clinical symptoms of this disease may include developmental delay, paralysis of one side of the body and blindness over half the field of vision; but the most significant symptom is ''seizures'' as 90% of patients present with this symptom.

<big><big>'''3) Microcephaly Vera'''</big></big>

[[File:Symptoms-microcephaly.png|frame|Microcephaly <ref>USDA & Felipe Dana/AP and Creative Commons License(CC) (2017). Understanding Zika. [online] Goinvo.com. Available at: http://www.goinvo.com/features/zika/ [Accessed 4 Oct. 2017].</ref>]]

Microcephaly or 'small brain', can be caused by abnormal cell proliferation or cell division along with the involvement of other organs. 

'''Primary Microcephaly or Microcephaly Vera''' results only due to abnormal cortical development, specifically cell division or proliferation. It is a congenital malformation in which the circumference of the head is quite less than normal and is accompanied by mental retardation and sometimes epilepsy.

<big><big>'''4) Tuberous Sclerosis Complex'''</big></big>

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a multi-organ disease resulting from mutations of certain genes, and is usually classified under defects of early cell proliferation and growth although it is also associated with defects of neuronal migration.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is thus called due to lesions seen that resembled potato tubers; and is characterised by benign abnormal mass of cells (tumors, cysts, and other malformations including hamartomas and neoplasms) in the cortex. 

" Beneath the cortex, the brain in tuberous sclerosis also shows nodular collections of small cells along the surface of the lateral ventricle that resemble ventricular cells and are called subependymal nodules...or, more descriptively, “candle drippings.” These nodules often contain numerous balloon cells and can in some cases become transformed into glial tumors referred to as subependymal giant cell astrocytomas..."

===B) Disorders due to abnormal neuronal migration ===
 
<big><big>''' 5-Heterotopia'''</big></big>

Migration of neurons occurs during the 8th week of development, along radial glial fibers (RGF). RGFs can be damaged due to ischemia, which can be caused by infection resulting from trauma or metabolic errors. 
RGF damage leads to the migration process arresting at the wrong time, resulting in abnormal or ectopic locations of neurons of the cortex. This condition is known as '''Heterotopia.'''

There are different types of heterotopia:

*'''Subcortical band heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, ectopic locations of neurons, seen as nodules, occur in the sub-cortical regions of the cerebral cortex. 

*'''Periventricular heterotopia/ sub-ependymal heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, ectopic locations of neurons, seen as nodules, occur in the sub-ependymal or periventricular area of gray matter of cerebral cortex. 

*'''Focal heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, abnormal location of neurons result in focal masses within deep white matter of cerebral cortex. 

<big><big>'''6-Lissencephaly'''</big></big>

'''Lissencephaly''' is a congenital cortex malformation, in which gyri (and sulci) of the cerebral cortex are absent or largely absent, resulting in a smooth surface of the brain.

Lissencephaly is often characterised by the following features:

*Total agyria (gyri and sulci absent resulting in 'smooth brain')

*Pachygyria (gyri can be seen but are very few compared to normal brain)

*Agyric brain with areas of pachygyria

*Vertically oriented Sylvian fissures of the brain, giving the brain an 'hourglass' configuration

Lissencephaly has been associated with some other abnormalities as well, including corpus callosum hypoplasia, small brain stem and gray matter heterotopia. 

Lissencephaly is further divided into types: 

*'''Classical (Type I) Lissencephaly'''- undermigration;

*'''Cobblestone (Type II) lissencephaly'''- overmigration

Type II Lissencephaly also includes: 

#Muscle-Eye-Brain Disease

#Walker-Warburg Syndrome

#Fragile X-Syndrome 

*'''Microlissencephaly''' 

<big><big>'''7-Kallmann Syndrome'''</big></big>

The Kallman Syndrome is syndrome which results from the migration of neurons that secrete leuteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) from the olfactory placode to the hypothalamus, causing congenital hypogonadism (since LHRH is necessary for normal gonadal function).

Kallman Syndrome is associated with hypoplasia of the olfactory bulbs and olfactory cortex, called arhinencephaly, and lack of the sense of smell. [not yet changed into own words]

===C) Disorders due to abnormal cortical maturation and organization/folding===
 
<big><big>'''8-Polymicrogyria'''</big></big>

If the neurons of the cerebral cortex successfully complete the proliferation and migration stages, but during the last organisation stage, distribute normally then multiple small undulating gyri can result. This condition is called '''Polymicrogyria (PMG)''', in which, the gyri become extremely small (hence the term micro) and their number is greater than normal. The cerebral cortex in this condition is flat and thickened, similar to that of pachygyria or agyria, and contains numerous small gyri. 

Polymicrogyria is usually focal. It is most commonly 'perisylvian' (around the Sylvian fissure) followed by 'bilateral' and then 'unilateral'. The most common sites, in descending order, are the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and then occipital lobe. 

<big><big>'''9-Schizencephaly'''</big></big>

'''Schizencephaly''' is an organisational developmental disorder characterised by a cleft(s) or lesion(s) on the brain surface, which is filled with CSF and lined by gray matter.
Schizencephaly can be bilateral or unilateral.

The clefts can be small with closed walls in '''Type I or Closed lip type''' schizencephaly; or the clefts can be large with free communication between the ventricle and subarachnoid spaces in '''Type II or Open lip type''' schizencephaly.

Schizencephaly commonly involves the parasylvian regions, and severity of the disease correlates with the extent of the clefts. 

===D) Others===

<big><big>''' 12-Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)'''</big></big>

[[File:FASface.jpg|thumb|right| Facial features appearance in Fetal Alcohol Spetrum Disorder (FASD) <ref> MarkHill,embryology.med.unsw.edu.au (2017). Facial Appearance of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). [image] Available at: https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/File:FASface.jpg [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017].</ref> ]]
 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3670687/
 

<big><big>'''13-Corpus Callosum Agenesis'''</big></big>

<html5media height="400" width="500">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zOa3LLrHKc</html5media>
<ref>Ezzo - Izzo, D. (2007). How the Body Works : The Corpus Callosum. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zOa3LLrHKc [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>

==INFO/ Research Links (temporary heading)==
 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6zQbTT0yoY 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luXDQrmMoUU 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992410/ 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547618/ 
http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(00)80749-7?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627300807497%3Fshowall%3Dtrue 

https://academic.oup.com/jnen/article/61/1/1/2916251 
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/67ea/2ce13f57f4ddbfb7033b6bb1328a5dff7742.pdf 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_nTggR7LTE 

For concept:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNngOlsLuGI

You might find this helpful (although you need to request copyright permission):

"Difference Between Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex." DifferenceBetween.Com. August 7, 2012. < http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-cerebrum-and-vs-cerebral-cortex/ >

PubMed Searches: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Cerebral+Cortex+Development ''Cerebral Cortex Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Cerebrum+Development ''Cerebrum Development'']

BMC Dev Biol Search: [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcdevbiol/search/results?terms=Cerebral+Cortex+Development ''Cerebral Cortex Development'']

Recent papers

<pubmed limit=5>Cerebral+Cortex+Development</pubmed>

==References==
[Harvard Style]

2017 Group Project 1

2017-10-05T05:41:38Z

Z5059949:

{{ANAT2341Project2017header}}

=Cerebral Cortex=

[[User:Z8600021|Mark Hill]] ([[User talk:Z8600021|talk]]) 15:59, 14 September 2017 (AEST) Feedback
* lots of sub-headings, but no actual text.
* no defined structure to the sequence of sub-headings.
* no research images related to what is an extensively researched topic.
* historic background of key research findings, put our understanding today in perspective.
* Lon list of abnormalities, with no description.

==Introduction==
( z5178570 )
====What is it?====

The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the human brain and is thought to be the main control centre, playing an essential role in cognitive function, memory, sensation and association. The cerebral cortex consists of the thin layer of the grey matter, around 2-4 mm in thickness, that surrounds the cerebrum, and consists of ~ 10 billion nerve cell bodies and dendrites.

The development of the cerebral cortex involves differentiation and migration of neurons, which are organised into six horizontal layers. I. Molecular layer, II. External granular layer , III. external pyramidal, IV. internal granular layer, V. internal pyramidal layer, VI. multiform layer. These individual layers organise the capacity for interconnections between both input and output signals.

====Histology of Cerebral Cortex====
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024757/ [[User:Z5177691|Z5177691]] ([[User talk:Z5177691|talk]]) 22:37, 23 August 2017 (AEST)

[[File:Stage 22 image 217.jpg | 800px]]
 

==Early Development of the Brain (and Nervous System)==
( z5059949 )

The brain begins to develop during the third week when the neural plate and tube derive from the outer most layer of embryonic cells, the neuroectoderm. The development of the brain is from the neural plate which folds to form the neural groove and then curls forming the neural tube, which is cranial to the fourth pair of somites, and eventually, forms the three primary brain vesicles <ref name="lecture"> Embryology.med.unsw.edu.au. (2017). Lecture - Ectoderm Development - Embryology. [online] Available at: https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Lecture_-_Ectoderm_Development. </ref>.

Neuroprogenitor cells proliferate, migrate, and differentiate to form specific areas of the brain <ref name="textbook"/>.

During week four fusion of the neural folds in the cranial region and closure of the rostral neuropore form three primary brain vesicles from which the brain develops <ref name="lecture"/>:
*Forebrain/Prosecephalon
*Midbrain/Mesencephalon
*Hindbrain/Rhombencephalone

From there three primary vesicles, there is a further division at the anterior extremity of the medullary canal into five secondary vesicles during week five. These are fundamental divisions of the adult brain and communicate freely with each other <ref name="Gray"> Gray, H. (1977). Gray's Anatomy. New York, New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. </ref>. They are <ref name ="textbook"> Moore, K., Persaud, T. and Torchia, M. (2015). The developing human. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. </ref>:
*Telencephalon: endbrain, forms cerebral hemispheres - derived from Prosecephalon
*Diencephalon: between brain, forms optic outgrowth - derived from Prosecephalon
*Mesencephalon: undivided
*Metencephalon: posterior to the brain - derived from Rhomabencephalon
*Myelencephalon: medulla - derived from Rhomabencephalon
In the beginning, these five divisions are uniform in size and shape but quickly differentiate at various rates <ref name="Gray"/>.

'''Brain Flexures'''

During the fifth week, the embryonic brain undergoes rapid growth folding the neural tube and consequently resulting in three brain flexures. These are <ref name="lecture"/>:
*Cephalic flexure - pushes mesencephalon upwards
*Cervical flexure - between brain stem and spinal cord at the junction of the spinal cord and hindbrain
*Pontine flexure - generates fourth ventricle; produced in the opposite direction as a result of later unequal brain growth, resulting in the thinning of the roof of the hindbrain <ref name="Gray"/>
The primordial brain initially has the same basic structure as the developing spinal cord, however consideration variations in the outline of transverse sections at different levels of the brain and in the position of the gray and white matter are produced by the brain flexures <ref name="textbook"/>. The sulcus limitans (the floor of the fourth ventricle) extends cranially to the junction of the midbrain and forebrain, and the alar and basal plates are recognisable only in the midbrain and hindbrain <ref name="textbook"/>.

==Development of Cerebral Cortex==
(z5177691)

'''Main classes of neurons''' <ref><pubmed> PMC3876965 </pubmed></ref>
*'''Projection neurons:''' excitatory neurons (glutamatergic) with axons that project to distant targets and are generated by progenitors in the dorsal pallium of the telencephalon. The have a typical pyramidal structure and send signals to various regions of the brain and neocortex.
*'''Interneurons:''' inhibitory neurons (GABAergic) that have local connections within the cortex and are generated in the subpallium of the telecephalon in the ventral proliferative zone. These neurons have to migrate to the neocortex area.

'''Key developmental zones in the human cortex: '''
*Ventricular zone
*Subventricular zone
**Inner Subventricular Zone
**Outer Subventricular zone
*Intermediate Zone
*Preplate: neural progenitor cells split into 2 regions
**Marginal zone:
**Subplate:
*Cortical Plate: where the 6 layers of the cortex form, exists in between the subplate and the marginal zone

===='''Timeline of Corticogenesis'''====
The dorsolateral wall of the telencephalon is initially made up of undifferentiated neuroepithelial cells at the beginning of development. The cells are neural stem cells, capable of dividing into various neuronal subtypes. The timing of birth for these neuronal subtypes determines the location (e.g fate) of the neurons so that specific connections and cortical structure are achieved. "E" relates to embryonic day in relation to corticogenesis.

{| class="wikitable"
! style="background:#f4a941" | DAY
! style="background:#f4a941" | DEVELOPMENT
|-
| E30|| Progenitors in the dorsal telencephalon divide symmetrically and give rise to the initial '''ventricular zone (VZ)''', a single layer of cells that attach their "feet" to the cerebral wall and divide. These neurons lay adjacent to the ventricular surface. <ref><pubmed> 18209730 </pubmed></ref>
|-
| E31-32 || Dividing cells from the VZ begin to differentiate into "pioneer" neurons to form the '''preplate.''' These neurons migrate radially and tangentially from the VZ to the pial surface in an upward fashion. These cells are often referred to as '''radial glial cells (RGCs)''' because they contain radial fibers that span the entire embryonic wall from the VZ to the pial surface. These fibers create a "scaffolding" for subsequent migrating neurons to attach to and travel along in order to expand the neocortex. These cells are multipotent cells that divide asymmetrically to produce intermediate precursor cells that can become projection neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes <ref name="cerebral"><pubmed> PMC4334136 </pubmed></ref> . The preplate is referred to as heterogeneous because it contains many developing cell types.
|-
| E40-45 || Cells in the VZ continue to divide symmetrically and give rise to another zone known as the '''subventricular zone (SVZ)'''. This proliferative layer lies above the ventricular zone and is not attached to the ventricular surface. Radial glial cells also populate this area as well as the preplate and many of the cells in the SVZ contribute to the later cortical neurons. The SVZ also separates into the outer subventricular zone (OSVZ) and the inner subventricular zone (ISVZ). The OSVZ continues to expand as it produces more migrating immature neurons and intermediate precursor cells. <ref name="cerebral"/>
|-
| E50-55|| The preplate begins to split into two subsections: the '''marginal zone''' and the '''subplate.''' An intermediate zone forms below the subplate and contains only migrating cells (migrating to the target destination) and no intermediate precursor cells. The '''cortical plate''' also begins to form in between the two regions. Newly born neurons that migrate to the cortical plate are developed '''"inside out"'''. This term "inside-out" means that earlier born cells populate the deep layers first and later born neurons populate the superficial layers of the neocortex by migrating past the deep layers. Therefore, layers 6 is populated before layer 5; layer 5 is populated before layer 4 and so on. Each layer condenses and the neurons are closely packed. As the layers form, the cortex expands. [[File:Stage22 HPA2L.jpg | 300px | thumb | center]]
|}

Migration and division of all six layers of the cortex is completed during the third trimester. Each layer has distinct synaptic connections and cell types that contribute to the specific functions of the cortex.

[[File:Corticogenesis of mouse and humans.jpeg | 600px]]

====Cell Signaling====
(z5178570)

==Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex==
( z5059696)

-layer grey matter outer surface of cerebrum

-2-4mm thickness

-most anterior (rostral) brain region

-outer zone of neuronal tissue (grey matter) containing neuronal cell bodies

-densely packed in humans with over 10 billion nerve cells (about 10% of all the neurons in the brain)

-where much of the neural activities of the cerebrum takes place

-divided left and right hemispheres by longitudinal fissure

-two hemispheres joined by corpus callosum at midline

-divided into functional areas that serve various sensory, motor and cognitive functions

-subdivisions of layers organizing input and output connectivity of resident neurons

-is folded in larger mammals to increase surface area, important allows addition and evolution of a greater diversity functional areas

-gyrus (gyri)= folds/ ridges

-sulcus (sulci)= groove

'''Layers'''

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray754.png

''Layer 1''

-outer layer (pial surface)

-molecular layer, few scattered neurons

-mainly extensions of pyramidal neuron apical dentrite tufts

-some spiny stellate cells

-inputs to apical tufts crucial for feedback interactions in cortex in associative learning and attention

''Layer 2''

-external granular layer

-small pyramidal neurons

-many stellate neurons

''Layer 3''

-external pyramidal layer

-small and medium sized pyramidal neurons

-non-pyramidal neurons with vertically orientated intracortical axons

-layers 1, 2, 3 main target of interhemisphere corticocortical afferent fibres

-layer 3 main source of cortiocortical efferent fibres

''Layer 4''

-internal granular layer

-different types stellate and pyramidal neyrons

-main target thalamocortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons and intra-hemipsheric corticocortical afferents

''Layer 5''

-internal pyramidal layer

-large pyramidal neurons

-give rise to axons leaving cortex and run down to subcortical structures e.g. basal ganglia

-In primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe, this layer contains Betz cells and their axons travel through the internal capsule, the brain stem and the spinal cord forming the corticospinal tract

-which is the main pathway for voluntary motor control

''Layer 6''

-polymorphic/ multiform layer

-few large pyramidal neurons

-many small spindle like pyramidal and multiform neurons

-sends efferent fibers to thalamus forms exact reciprocal interconnection between thalamus and cortex

-connections are both inhibitory and excitatory

'''Other info to add'''

three large surfaces: superolateral surface, medial surface, inferior surface

-surfaces characterised by sulci and gyri

three borders: superomedial border, inferomedial border, inferolateral border

lobes defined by large sulci (fissures)

named according to their relation to bones of skull

1) frontal lobe

2) parietal lobe

3) temporal lobe

4) occipital lobe

'''Blood Supply'''

==Functions of the Cerebral Cortex==
( z5059696)

'''Functional Areas'''

-Motor area (primary motor cortex)

-premotor area (motor association cortex)

-sensory area (pimary somatosensory cortex)

-auditory (acoustic) area

-olfactory area

-visual areas

-occipital eye field

-prefrontal areas (prefrontal cortex)

<html5media height="400" width="500">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE</html5media>

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE

==Abnormalities associated with Cerebral Cortex Development==
( z5093005 ) <ref>Mahfouz, M. (2015). Imaging of cortical formation disorders - DRE 4 - Prof. Dr Mamdouh Mahfouz. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_nTggR7LTE [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>
<ref>Squier, W. and Jansen, A. (2010). Abnormal development of the human cerebral cortex. Journal of Anatomy, [online] 217(4), pp.312-323. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992410/ [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017]. </ref>
<ref>Pang, T., Atefy, R. and Sheen, V. (2008). Malformations of Cortical Development. The Neurologist, [online] 14(3), pp.181-191. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547618/ [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017]. </ref>
<ref>Christopher A, C. (2017). Genetic Malformations of the Human Cerebral Cortex. Neuron, [online] 23(1), pp.19 - 29. Available at: http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(00)80749-7?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627300807497%3Fshowall%3Dtrue [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>

[[File:Disorders of Cortical Formation.png|frame|center|Main stages of cortical development where abnormalities may arise]]
 

===A) Disorders due to abnormal proliferation, growth or differentiation of neuroblasts ===
 
<big><big>'''1) Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)'''</big></big>

'''Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)''' is heterogeneous developmental disorder of uncertain etiology. Focal Cortical Dysplasia is characterised by neurons arranged abnormally in the focal areas of the cerebral cortex as well as disorganisation of layers and very large cells called 'balloon' cells. FCD can affect the areas throughout the brain but occurs dominantly in the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

In all patients who present with epilepsy, FCD is the cause for about approximately 25% of them. 

FCD is of two types: Type I and Type II.

<big><big>'''2) Hemimegalencephaly'''</big></big>

[[File:Hemimegalencephaly.jpg|frame|Hemimegalencephaly]]

A rare congenital disorder that also results from the abnormal proliferation of neuroblasts is Hemimegalencephaly. 

'''Hemimegalencephaly''' is a developmental disorder which consists of a 'hamartomatous' overgrowth (where normal mature cells and tissues normally present in an area of the body, form a tumour-like, benign malformation) on part of all of the cerebral hemisphere.

Hemimegalencephaly accounts for 0.2% of cases of childhood epilepsy. Clinical symptoms of this disease may include developmental delay, paralysis of one side of the body and blindness over half the field of vision; but the most significant symptom is ''seizures'' as 90% of patients present with this symptom.

<big><big>'''3) Microcephaly Vera'''</big></big>

[[File:Symptoms-microcephaly.png|frame|Microcephaly <ref>USDA & Felipe Dana/AP and Creative Commons License(CC) (2017). Understanding Zika. [online] Goinvo.com. Available at: http://www.goinvo.com/features/zika/ [Accessed 4 Oct. 2017].</ref>]]

Microcephaly or 'small brain', can be caused by abnormal cell proliferation or cell division along with the involvement of other organs. 

'''Primary Microcephaly or Microcephaly Vera''' results only due to abnormal cortical development, specifically cell division or proliferation. It is a congenital malformation in which the circumference of the head is quite less than normal and is accompanied by mental retardation and sometimes epilepsy.

<big><big>'''4) Tuberous Sclerosis Complex'''</big></big>

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a multi-organ disease resulting from mutations of certain genes, and is usually classified under defects of early cell proliferation and growth although it is also associated with defects of neuronal migration.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is thus called due to lesions seen that resembled potato tubers; and is characterised by benign abnormal mass of cells (tumors, cysts, and other malformations including hamartomas and neoplasms) in the cortex. 

" Beneath the cortex, the brain in tuberous sclerosis also shows nodular collections of small cells along the surface of the lateral ventricle that resemble ventricular cells and are called subependymal nodules...or, more descriptively, “candle drippings.” These nodules often contain numerous balloon cells and can in some cases become transformed into glial tumors referred to as subependymal giant cell astrocytomas..."

===B) Disorders due to abnormal neuronal migration ===
 
<big><big>''' 5-Heterotopia'''</big></big>

Migration of neurons occurs during the 8th week of development, along radial glial fibers (RGF). RGFs can be damaged due to ischemia, which can be caused by infection resulting from trauma or metabolic errors. 
RGF damage leads to the migration process arresting at the wrong time, resulting in abnormal or ectopic locations of neurons of the cortex. This condition is known as '''Heterotopia.'''

There are different types of heterotopia:

*'''Subcortical band heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, ectopic locations of neurons, seen as nodules, occur in the sub-cortical regions of the cerebral cortex. 

*'''Periventricular heterotopia/ sub-ependymal heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, ectopic locations of neurons, seen as nodules, occur in the sub-ependymal or periventricular area of gray matter of cerebral cortex. 

*'''Focal heterotopia:''' 

In this type of heterotopia, abnormal location of neurons result in focal masses within deep white matter of cerebral cortex. 

<big><big>'''6-Lissencephaly'''</big></big>

'''Lissencephaly''' is a congenital cortex malformation, in which gyri (and sulci) of the cerebral cortex are absent or largely absent, resulting in a smooth surface of the brain.

Lissencephaly is often characterised by the following features:

*Total agyria (gyri and sulci absent resulting in 'smooth brain')

*Pachygyria (gyri can be seen but are very few compared to normal brain)

*Agyric brain with areas of pachygyria

*Vertically oriented Sylvian fissures of the brain, giving the brain an 'hourglass' configuration

Lissencephaly has been associated with some other abnormalities as well, including corpus callosum hypoplasia, small brain stem and gray matter heterotopia. 

Lissencephaly is further divided into types: 

*'''Classical (Type I) Lissencephaly'''- undermigration;

*'''Cobblestone (Type II) lissencephaly'''- overmigration

Type II Lissencephaly also includes: 

#Muscle-Eye-Brain Disease

#Walker-Warburg Syndrome

#Fragile X-Syndrome 

*'''Microlissencephaly''' 

<big><big>'''7-Kallmann Syndrome'''</big></big>

The Kallman Syndrome is syndrome which results from the migration of neurons that secrete leuteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) from the olfactory placode to the hypothalamus, causing congenital hypogonadism (since LHRH is necessary for normal gonadal function).

Kallman Syndrome is associated with hypoplasia of the olfactory bulbs and olfactory cortex, called arhinencephaly, and lack of the sense of smell. [not yet changed into own words]

===C) Disorders due to abnormal cortical maturation and organization/folding===
 
<big><big>'''8-Polymicrogyria'''</big></big>

If the neurons of the cerebral cortex successfully complete the proliferation and migration stages, but during the last organisation stage, distribute normally then multiple small undulating gyri can result. This condition is called '''Polymicrogyria (PMG)''', in which, the gyri become extremely small (hence the term micro) and their number is greater than normal. The cerebral cortex in this condition is flat and thickened, similar to that of pachygyria or agyria, and contains numerous small gyri. 

Polymicrogyria is usually focal. It is most commonly 'perisylvian' (around the Sylvian fissure) followed by 'bilateral' and then 'unilateral'. The most common sites, in descending order, are the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and then occipital lobe. 

<big><big>'''9-Schizencephaly'''</big></big>

'''Schizencephaly''' is an organisational developmental disorder characterised by a cleft(s) or lesion(s) on the brain surface, which is filled with CSF and lined by gray matter.
Schizencephaly can be bilateral or unilateral.

The clefts can be small with closed walls in '''Type I or Closed lip type''' schizencephaly; or the clefts can be large with free communication between the ventricle and subarachnoid spaces in '''Type II or Open lip type''' schizencephaly.

Schizencephaly commonly involves the parasylvian regions, and severity of the disease correlates with the extent of the clefts. 

===D) Others===

<big><big>''' 12-Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)'''</big></big>

[[File:FASface.jpg|thumb|right| Facial features appearance in Fetal Alcohol Spetrum Disorder (FASD) <ref> MarkHill,embryology.med.unsw.edu.au (2017). Facial Appearance of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). [image] Available at: https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/File:FASface.jpg [Accessed 5 Oct. 2017].</ref> ]]
 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3670687/
 

<big><big>'''13-Corpus Callosum Agenesis'''</big></big>

<html5media height="400" width="500">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zOa3LLrHKc</html5media>
<ref>Ezzo - Izzo, D. (2007). How the Body Works : The Corpus Callosum. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zOa3LLrHKc [Accessed 23 Sep. 2017].</ref>

==INFO/ Research Links (temporary heading)==
 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6zQbTT0yoY 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-m0JDCw6TE 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luXDQrmMoUU 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992410/ 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3547618/ 
http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(00)80749-7?_returnURL=http%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0896627300807497%3Fshowall%3Dtrue 

https://academic.oup.com/jnen/article/61/1/1/2916251 
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/67ea/2ce13f57f4ddbfb7033b6bb1328a5dff7742.pdf 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_nTggR7LTE 

For concept:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNngOlsLuGI

You might find this helpful (although you need to request copyright permission):

"Difference Between Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex." DifferenceBetween.Com. August 7, 2012. < http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-cerebrum-and-vs-cerebral-cortex/ >

PubMed Searches: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Cerebral+Cortex+Development ''Cerebral Cortex Development''] | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Cerebrum+Development ''Cerebrum Development'']

BMC Dev Biol Search: [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcdevbiol/search/results?terms=Cerebral+Cortex+Development ''Cerebral Cortex Development'']

Recent papers

<pubmed limit=5>Cerebral+Cortex+Development</pubmed>

==References==
[Harvard Style]