2011-10-12T08:44:51Z

Z3291423: /* Treatment/Management */

{{2011ProjectsMH}}

=Tetralogy of Fallot=

==Introduction==

[[File:Tetralogy_of_fallot_after_surgery.png‎| thumb | 300px | right | Baby with Tetralogy of Fallot- The morning after surgery]]

Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is a congenital heart disease affecting approximately 3 in 10000 people. It is the most common form of congenital heart disease, accounting for about 1 in 10 cases. <ref name="PMID1689816"><pubmed>1689816</pubmed></ref> TOF was named after Etienne-Louis Fallot for his description of the anatomy and physiology of the defects associated with the disease.<ref name="PMID:19683809
"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> TOF is believed to be caused by a genetic mutation of chromosomes 5,20 and 25, which impact the development of the neonatal heart. These genetic mutations contribute to the four characteristic defects of TOF:

* Pulmonary stenosis: a narrowing of the blood flow path from the right ventricle to the lungs.
* Overiding aorta: an aorta which is continuous with both ventricles instead of just the left one.
* Ventricular septal defect: the septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete
* Right ventricular hypertrophy: enlargement of the cells in the right ventricle. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed></pubmed>19144126</ref>

TOF patients are given the name 'blue babies' because they often have a slightly blue appearance due to the decreased circulating oxygen levels. Some common symptoms in TOF patients include turning blue while crying, collapsing due to ''tet spells'' during exercise, dizziness and fatigue.

Etienne Fallot, Helen Taussig and Alfred Blalock have significantly contributed to the understanding of the cardiac anomalies and treatment options associated with TOF. Currently, surgery is the most successful treatment option, however ''palliative care'' and medical treatment is also available. Due to technology advancements, doctors are able to detect TOF more accurately and treat patients quicker, allowing an increase in survival rate and a favourable long term prognosis.

Whilst the understanding of this disease has grown greatly, future treatment options are continuously being explored. These include developing durable and efficient surgical procedures, shunts and valves.

==History==

====Early History====
[[File:Dr Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot]]

In '''1671''', Niels Stenson was the first to anatomically describe Tetralogy of Fallot. However, the precise descriptions of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot were done in '''1784''' by William Hunter at St Georges Hospital Medical School in London. His description is as follows<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> :

{| style="border: solid 3px #8eb2ec"
|- align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0"
|''“…the passage from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which should have admitted a finger, was not so wide as a goose quill; and there was a hole in the partition of the two ventricles, large enough to pass the thumb from one to the other. The greatest part of the blood in the right ventricle was driven with that of the left ventricle into the aorta, or great artery, and so lost all the advantage which it ought to have had from breathing”''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|}

Hunter’s description of the defected heart’s anatomy along with its resulting physiology was further specified and advanced by Etienne-Louis Fallot. However it was Maude Abbott from Canada who coined the term ‘Tetralogy of Fallot’ in '''1924'''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.

====Contemporary History====

In '''1938''' there was a dawn in surgical therapy for people with heart defects as Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent ductus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7.<ref name="PMID7888802"><pubmed>7888802</pubmed></ref> [[File:Dr Helen Brooke Taussig.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Helen Brooke Taussig]]

Later, it was the work of Helen Taussig with her using a fluoroscope which allowed her to determine that children suffering from cyanosis, especially those with TOF, had decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation and thus more blood was needed to enter into this circulation. She then put forward a concept that shows the benefits of an ‘artificial ductus’; as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells weeks after the baby was born<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

It was in the morning of '''1943''' in which Taussig explained to [http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/diglib/sc_diglib/biopages/ablalock.html Blalock] and [http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah/thomas-vivien-1910-1985 Thomas] that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods. It was only a year later in which this belief came into practice as a cyanotic congenital heart experienced the first successful treatment due to surgical means. This technique was conducted on another two cases with the same defect and thus due to such success from the surgeries, the concept had received worldwide success.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>

During the '''1950s''', the rise of open heart surgery began and the era of closed-heart surgery dominance had ceased. It was also during the '''1950s''' to '''1970s''' that surgeons realised the great variance in the anatomy of TOF, thus they had to work out new surgical techniques to accommodate this variation. Also during this period, there was an appreciation by surgeons that whilst conducting such operations in the heart, there needs to be precision in how they conduct their work anatomically. Thus in this 20 year period, there was a number of surgeons who had successfully conducted intracardiac surgeries to infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

During her late years of work Dr Taussig had hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in the infants. At the time the hypothesis received skepticism, however today studies show us that this idea is quite real <ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

====Surgical History====

The first procedures for Tetralogy of Fallot were being conducted from around the '''1950s'''. Due the advances in the areas of medicine which support and maintain surgeries, children born with Tetralogy of Fallot now have a great chance of survive to adulthood<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. In retrospective studies it shows how surgical procedures have improved. From the '''1950s''' till today, the mortality rate from surgery dropped from 50% to less than 2%<ref name="PMID21251297"><pubmed>21251297</pubmed></ref>.

It was in '''1945''' that Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’ and in '''1954''' that Varco and Lillehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing a open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>.

During the surgeries in the past the surgeons will place a shunt between the pulmonary artery and a systemic artery of a child with Tetralogy of Fallot as this will allow some improvement in the oxygenation of the infant’s blood. It will be later when the individual grows up that the shunt will be removed then the heart will be repaired. Now surgeons prefer to repair the heart in the initial operation to repair the infants heart<ref name="PMID21048055"><pubmed>21048055</pubmed></ref>.

====Timeline====

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Year'''
|'''Milestones'''
|-
|align="center"|'''1628'''
| William Harvey published his work ''De Motu Cordis'' which portrayed a groundbreaking understanding that the two criculatory systems, pulmonary and systemic, and independant of each other.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1671'''
| Stenson anatomically described Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1784'''
| William Hunter gave a precise description of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1847'''
| Chevers acknowledged the absence of pulmonary valve in Tetralogy of Fallot hearts.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1850s'''
| Peacock was a pioneer in using a stethoscope to discover a cardiac murmur with a heart with pulmonary stenosis.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Fallot destroyed the idea that cyanosis had always occured due to inability of the foramen ovale to close. Also, he was the one to use the term ''tetralogie'', and furthermore acknowledged that there was no therapeutic treatments for patients of TOF during his time<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Etienne-Louis Fallot specified and advanced the description of Tetralogy of Fallot’s heart anatomy and its resulting physiology<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1924'''
| Maude Abbott coined the term “Tetralogy of Fallot”<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1930s'''
| Helen Taussig using fluoroscope determined that TOF patients suffer cyanosis because of decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation. She then proposed the benefits of an “artificial ductus” in TOF neonates, as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1936'''
| Abbot demonstrated the Chest X-ray, 3-lead electrocardiogram and circulatory and auscilatory diagrams that were produced from a Tetralogy of Fallot heart<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1938'''
| Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent dusctus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1943'''
| Taussig explained to Blalock and Thomas that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1945'''
| Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950'''
| Beginning of the rise of open heart surgery<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1954'''
| Varco and Lilehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing an open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950-70'''
| Realisation of variance in the anatomy of TOF. This became the period of success for intracardiac surgeries to infant<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''mid 1970s'''
| Advancements in Infant surgery, introduction of prostaglandin therapy and rise in electrocardiography signficantly affected the patients with Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1990s'''
| Dr Taussig hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|}

==Epidemiology==

Tetralogy of Fallot is considered to be a rare genetic disorder. It makes up around 7%-10% of cardiac congenital defects. Moreover, epidemiological studies show that it occurs in 3 out of 10000 live births that are delivered. After the neonatal age, Tetralogy of Fallot is the most frequent cause of ''cyanotic heart disease''. Additionally, Tetralogy of Fallot slightly affects more males than females.<ref name="PMID20091166"><pubmed>20091166</pubmed></ref>

The incidence of TOF seems to occur sporadically, even though there is a 3% risk of reoccurrence in a sibling (without any other first degree relatives affected by TOF). However, Mothers who are 35 years and older have an increased risk that their offspring will have TOF, whilst on the other hand mothers who have 2 or more children have a decreased risk.

Below is a table which shows the incidence rates of TOF in different races[ref]:
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff" align="center"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Race'''
|'''Incidence of TOF malformation (per 10,000)'''
|-
|align="center"|''Whites''
|align="center"| 2.85
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Hispanics''
|align="center"| 2.31
|-
|align="center"|''Asians''
|align="center"| 2.83
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Blacks''
|align="center"| 3.81
|-
|align="center"|''Other''
|align="center"| 3.80
|}

In regards to genetics, one study showed that in 25% of the cases of TOF there is a microdeletion on Chromosome 22 which has the q11 region within it. Moreover, TOF is associated and frequently diagniosed along side Velocardiofacial syndrome and Di George Syndrome. Interestingly, another study showed that there is a rate of 25% in which patients with this 22q11 mutation eventually develop schizophrenia.

Tetralogy of Fallot is also associated with the chromosomal anomalies Trisomy 21, 18 and 13, and also associated with Alagille syndrome which has JAG1. The most frequently associated genetic anomalies with tetralogy of Fallot is Trisomy 21 and 22q11.2 deletion.Furthermore, mutations in the 5q35 section (which codes for NKX2.5) were found in 4% of TOF patients which are classified as non-syndromic TOF.

In respect to clinical features, 35% of patients with TOF have Ventricular and Atrial arrhythmias. A 30 year follow up period of patients with TOF have shown that 6% of them die due to sudden cardiac death.

TOF is treated with surgery (see Treatment section below). When this is conducted before the age of six months, there is a low mortality rate associated with it (i.e. 2%). After surgical intervention is conducted, there is an 85-90% survival rate. It is clearly possible that improvements in the surgical field has allowed the reduction in surgical mortality which was 50% in the late 1950’s to 2% with contemporary surgical methods. On the other hand, if a TOF patient decides not to correct their condition, there is a 10% chance they will survive till their age is in the 30s and a 3% chance they will survive till their forties or older. Before surgical interventions were possible, TOF patients usually died within the first few years after birth, and it was rather unusual to see a patient who had survived beyond 30 years of age.

In regards to survival statistics, after surgery is conducted to correct TOF there is a:
* 97% chance that the patient will live one year after the surgery
* 98% chance that the patient will survive 20 years after the surgery if they were alive 30 days post surgery
* 90% chance that the patient will survive 30 years post surgery if they were operated on whilst they were children

From epidemiological studies conducted in regards to mortality rates in respect to congenital heart disease in the US between 1979-2005, there was a 40% reduction in mortality that was linked to Tetralogy of Fallot. It is thought that this reduction in mortality was associated to the ‘earlier recognition and treatment of heart failure and arrythmia’ which allowed this change in mortality rates to occur.<ref><pubmed>19853711</pubmed></ref>

==Signs and Symptoms==

'''Cyanosis'''

Normally, red blood cells carry oxygen around the body that is nearly completely saturated with oxygen held by the haemoglobin. When blood loses its oxygen, the colour changes from bright red colour to a colour that is a mix of dark blue and red. This event is known as cyanosis. Cyanosis could occur in situations in which the lungs are compromised due to underlying reasons such as the lungs being infected with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and exposure to air at high altitudes. In the case of TOF patients, one of the heart defects (i.e. ventricular septal defect, explained further below) allows cyanosis to occur as the blood oxygen concentration is decreased due to the mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the TOF heart’s ventricles<ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration">http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003215.htm</ref>.

The most important sign of TOF patients is cyanosis. This is when the lips, fingernails and skin of the patient turns a bluish colour<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/signs.html</ref>. Additionally during cyanosis, the mucous membranes of the TOF patient may turn blue. Therefore, the cases where dark-skinned individuals may experience cyanosis, the cyanotic event could be observed by change in colour in the nails and mucous membranes, which include lips, around the eyes and gums <ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration"/>. Cyanosis is considered to occur due to decreased amounts of oxygenated haemoglobin found within the blood when cyanosis occurs <ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK367/</ref>.

''''Tet Spells' and Fatigue'''

The word 'Tet spells' is derived from Tetralogy of Fallot, as it is an event experieced by individuals who suffer from TOF. Babies who have TOF can at times enter into these ‘tet spells’, in which there is a sudden drop in oxygen saturation of the blood, causing the baby to turn blue. These 'Tet spells' become apparent when the baby does certain activities such as crying<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An image portraying a 'Tet spell' in an infant can be found here: [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/18134.htm Cyanotic 'Tet spell']

In addition to experiencing 'Tet spells', the baby could pass out, become unresponsive to their parents calling or touch, develop fatigue and finally have ''dyspnoea''. Furthermore, children with TOF would develop fatigue quickly and possibly pass out, thus surgeons now repair TOF hearts during infancy and not at adult to prevent such events.<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>

'''Heart Murmur'''

Heart murmurs are sound waves which are clearly audible that come from the vascular system or from the heart which have a round range between 20-2000Hz. It is considered to be produced as a consequence of blood flow within the cardiovascular system which is that is turbulent<ref><pubmed>14979389</pubmed></ref>. In the case of Tetralogy of Fallot, a heart murmur is a common sign which occurs due to the defected heart’s abnormal blood flow through it. However it should be mentioned that heart murmur is not a hallmark for congenital heart defects as many hearts of healthy children also have murmurs<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An audio sample of a heart murmur that would be heard in a TOF patient is found in the link below. Also below is a link to the sound of a normal heart beat without murmur and without TOF.

''Normal Heart:'' [http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=1&CourseID=22 First and Second Heart Sounds - Normal & Unsplit - Waveform and Audio] -- ''TOF Heart:''[http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=5&CourseID=29 Tetralogy of Fallot - Waveform and Audio]

The types of murmurs that can be present in the heart include <ref name="PMID21048055"/>:
:1. '''Pulmonary Insufficiency Murmur''' - which occurs briefly and low pitched in the diastolic phase of the heart beat. This murmur is often missed during a physical examination of the heart because it is heard to hear it and its duration is short
:2. '''Aortic Insufficency Murmur'''
:3. '''Right Ventricular Outflow Murmur''' – can also have a pansytolic (throughout the systole of the heart beat) murmur if there is a presence of ventricular septal defect found in the heart <ref name="PMID21048055"/>.

'''Abnormal Growth and Clubbing'''

Children with TOF do not grow at the rate of normal children as whilst breastfeeding in infancy, the babies would get tired quicker and during the growth of the infant, normal functionability of the heart and oxygen saturated blood is needed for proper growth <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. [[File:Finger-Clubbing.jpg |thumb| An example of finger clubbing|300px]]

TOF children may also have ''''clubbing''''. <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/> This clubbing would be evident as there would be enlargenemt of the bone or the skin around the fingernails of the patient. <ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001567.htm</ref>

'''Cardiac and Visceral Problems'''

It should also be mentioned that ''pulmonary insufficiency'' symptoms developed from a TOF heart varies in the degree of pulmonary insufficiency found in that individual. Thus the symptoms that could be presented are of a wide range which could from decline in function to palpitations. Moreover, late symptoms could also develop from the insufficiency which includes right heart failure, exertional dyspnea, ''syncope'' and palpitations. In an event of which right ventricular failure occurs, signs to indicate it include elevated jugular venous pressure, ''ascites'', ''hepatomegaly'', jugular venous distension and peripheral edema.<ref name="PMID21048055"/>

==Genetics/Aetiology==

The genetic etiology of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is still currently unknown and being researched. Even though this is the case, most of the studies done on the disorder have agreed that TOF normally occurs with other developmental disorders, like DiGeorge syndrome, and that the disorder may be caused by multiple mutations in a person’s genome. Here are some of the current suspected genetic mutations that leads to the congenital disease Tetralogy of Fallot.

===22q11.21===

* '''Gene profile'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TBX1</ref>: [[File:TBX1.jpeg|thumb|TBX1|400px]]
**Gene affected = TBX1
**Chromosome number = 22
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 11.21
**Base pair region = 19,744,225 to 19,771,115

Studies have shown 74% of patients with 22q11.2 microdeletions have Congenital Heart Defect, and out of these 22% have Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF).<ref><pubmed>11339373</pubmed></ref>. This is why mutation in this region of the chromosome is an important consideration for the genetic aetiology of TOF.

This gene is responsible for the production of T-box 1 protein transcription factor.It is a dose sensitive protein, meaning the amount of protein produced by the gene is reduced once there is increased amount of the transcription factor. It contributes to the development of the outflow tract and right ventricle of the heart. This is by regulating the expression of the genes via the binding of the protein to specific area in the DNA.<ref><pubmed>20937753</pubmed></ref> Unfortunately the genes regulated by this protein are still not well known, even though its mechanism and function have already been determined.

The most common genetic mutation of this gene that results in TOF is a microdeletion of 3 or 1.5 Mb of 22q11.2 region on chromosome 22 <ref name="PMID19948535"><pubmed>19948535</pubmed></ref>. The result of this microdeletion is a haploinsufficient gene. This is where there is only a single copy of the gene in one allele, which clinically leads to an abnormal functioning of the protein because a single copy of the gene is incapable of producing enough protein that will allow normal function.<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary=haploinsufficiency</ref>

Although microdeletion is the most common mutation in the TBX1 gene that results to TOF, there are other muattional variants that have been observed that resulted in non-syndromic TOF. This variant involves a heterozygous 30-bp duplication in exon 9c of the TBX1 gene of patients with TOF. This leads to the production of non-functioning TBX1 protein because the insertion of the duplicate leads to the expansion of the polyalanine tract. The proteins produced aggregates within the cytoplasm, leading to decrease in transcription of Tbx1 gene, since this gene is dose-dependent. Also the proteins produced are non-functioning, thus transcription of genes that the T-box 1 protein is responsible for is not initiated.<ref name="PMID19948535"/>

Mutation of the TBX1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*DiGeorge Syndrome
*Velocardiofacial Syndrome
*Conotruncal anomaly face syndrome

===5q34===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/NKX2-5</ref>:[[File:NKX2-5.jpeg|thumb|400px|NKX2-5]]
**Gene affected = NKX2-5
**Chromosome number = 5
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 34
**Base pair region = 172,659,106 to 172,662,314

Studies have shown that at least 4% of TOF patients have NKX2-5 mutation. Patients with this mutation are also found to be non-syndromic TOF patients. This is why the mutation in this gene is considered in the development of TOF.<ref name="PMID1714651"><pubmed>1714651</pubmed></ref>

It encodes the NK2 homeobox 5 transcription factor. NK2 homeobox 5 is essential in tissue differentiation and temporal and spatial patterns of development in cardiac tissue.<ref><pubmed>7665173</pubmed></ref>. This protein is particularly involved in the development of atrial, ventricular and conotruncal septation, AV conduction and AV valve formation<ref><pubmed>10587520</pubmed></ref>.

There are 3 known substitution mutation of the NKX2-5 gene in TOF patients resulting in right-sided aortic arch, mirror-image aortic arch branching, and a retroaortic innominate vein<ref name="PMID1714651"/>. This includes:
*glu-to-gln at codon 21 position
*arg-to cys at codon 216 position
*ala-to val at codon 219 position

Mutation of the NKX2-5 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Hypothyroidism
*Congenital nengoitrous
*Atrial septal defect with atrioventricular conduction defects

===20p12.1-p11.23===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/JAG1</ref>:[[File:JAG1.jpeg|thumb|JAG1|400px]]
**Gene affected = JAG1
**Chromosome number = 20
**Chromosomal arm = p (short arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 12.1 to 11.23
**Base pair region = 10,618,331 to 10,654,693

The typical clinical presentation of mutation in this gene is a disease called Alagille Syndrome (AGS) that have some clinical overlap with that of TOF, which are mainly right heart abnormalities.<ref><pubmed>12427653</pubmed></ref> This makes mutation in this gene of special interest when it comes to TOF

The gene is composed of about 36 kb with 26 exons,<ref><pubmed>9268641</pubmed></ref> and expresses the gene expresses Jagged-1 protein, which is a ligand of the Notch receptor<ref name="PMID11869892"><pubmed>11869892</pubmed></ref>. JAG1 Gene is highly expressed in developing mammalian heart, thus Jagged-1 ligands are present on cardiac cell membranes<ref><pubmed>10556292</pubmed></ref>. With the Notch receptor present on adjacent cells, Jagged-1 protein is involved in intercellular signalling between adjacent cells. This is because ligand-receptor bond leads to the release of the receptor’s intracellular region from the membrane. This part is transported into the nucleus activating transcription factors that affects cellular function, leading to cell differentiation and morphogenesis.<ref name="PMID11869892"/>

There is a missesnse mutation of the JAG1 gene (G274D), which is gly-to-asp substitution. This may lead to the formation of cysteine residues that results in the formation of abnormal protein because its structure and stability has been compromised.<ref name="PMID11152664"><pubmed>11152664</pubmed></ref> There are 2 types of proteins resulting from the mutation of the allele with the abnormal functioning protein produced at higher temperature<ref><pubmed>12649809</pubmed></ref>:
*Abnormally glycosylated Jagged-1protein that was retained intracellularly and not transported to cell surface
*Normally glycosylated protein that retains its function as a ligand to NOTCH receptor, as it is transported to the cell surface
The result is the development of traits that are characteristic of TOF, including ventricular septal defect with aortic dextroposition and isolated pulmonic stenosis.<ref name="PMID11152664"/>

Mutation of the JAG1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Alagille Syndrome
*Deafness
*Congenital heart defects
*Posterior embryotoxon

==Pathophysiology and Abnormalities==

{| border="0px"
|-
|The four pathological features of tetralogy of fallot are:

# Pulmonary stenosis
# Overriding aorta
# Ventricular septal defect
# Right ventricular hypertrophy

These features result from the disruption of the aortic and pulmonary outflow tracts. The severity of symptoms is determined by the extent of right ventricular outflow obstruction.<ref name="PMID19144126"/>

'''''Pulmonary stenosis''''' - Pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']] may be caused by a narrowing of the pulmonary valve (valvular stenosis) or the outflow tract of the right ventricle (infundibular stenosis). <ref name="PMID14132270"><pubmed>14132270</pubmed></ref> The narrowing of either the valve or the infundibulum obstructs the flow of blood from the right ventricle into the pulmonary circulation. Consequently, this results in a reduced flow of oxygenated blood in the systemic circulation. If the degree of pulmonary stenosis is mild, a left to right shunt forms. (The higher pressure in the left ventricle causes blood to pass through the septal defect into the right ventricle). However, if the pulmonary stenosis is significant, a right to left shunt will form. <ref name="PMID15934690 "><pubmed>15934690 </pubmed></ref> This occurs because the stenosis raises the pressure in the right ventricle and forces blood directly into the left ventricle. This is important because deoxygenated blood can now enter the systemic circulation and problems such as [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']], dizziness and fainting can occur. The pathophysiology of pulmonary stenosis usually worsens with age because the pulmonary orifice stays the same size despite an increase in the size of the heart. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Overriding aorta''''' - Instead of being positioned directly over the left ventricle, the aorta is displaced anterosuperiorly (in front of and above). The aortic valve is located directly above the interventricular septal defect allowing blood from both the left and right ventricles to pass through the aortic valve. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref> This biventricular connection allows both oxygenated (from left ventricle) and deoxygenated blood (from right ventricle) to enter the systemic circulation. The degree to which the overriding aorta is continuous with the right ventricle determines the severity of symptoms. <ref name="PMID11520451"><pubmed>11520451</pubmed></ref>

'''''Ventricular septal defect''''' - The interventricular septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete at its superior, membranous end. <ref name="PMID19683809 "/> During ventricular contraction, blood from the left ventricle is forced into the right ventricle and then re-enters the pulmonary circulation. This extra volume of blood places pressure of the pulmonary system and compensatory pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''hypertension''']] and right ventricular [[#Glossary | '''hypertrophy''']] may occur. If the right ventricular pressure exceeds that of the left, the left to right shunt is reversed and the patient will experience [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']] because deoxygenated blood is bypassing the lungs and entering the systemic circulation. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Right ventricular hypertrophy''''' - [[#Glossary | '''Hypertrophy''']] of the right ventricle is a compensatory response to pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']]. Because the pulmonary outflow tract is narrowed, the right ventricle must pump harder to meet the oxygen demands of the body. <ref name="PMID3068155"><pubmed>3068155</pubmed></ref>

The diagram on the right shows the blood flow in a normal heart and the blood flow in a patient with Tetralogy of Fallot.
|[[File:Tetralogy of fallot-the 4 defects.jpg|220px|thumb|Tetralogy of fallot-the four defects]]
[[File:Normal fetal blood flow and Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg |360px|thumb| Fetal blood flow in a normal heart and in a Tetralogy of Fallot heart]]
|}

==Diagnostic Tests==

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Diagnostic technique'''
|'''How the technique works'''
|'''Presentation in a TOF patient'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Physical examination'''
| TOF is often diagnosed during fetal life by echocardiography.<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref>
If TOF is not detected during fetal life, certain signs and symptoms at birth may alert the need for further investigation.
|Signs and symptoms include mild to moderate cyanosis, which worsens when the baby cries, difficulty feeding and difficulty gaining weight. However, TOF often goes undiagnosed until adult life. Most adult patients will appear normal, however, some may present with ''cyanosis'' and clubbing of the fingers. The jugular venous pressure is usually normally (raised jugular venous pressure often indicates right ventricular failure). If the aorta is pushed to the right (so it is continuous with both the left and right ventricle), a lift below the right sternoclavicular joint may be noted. <ref name="PMID8272784"><pubmed>8272784</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Clinical examination TOF.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Heart murmurs'''
|Heart murmurs are sounds caused by the turbulent flow of blood. They are heard using a stethoscope. They are often the result of problems including valvular stenosis (narrowing of valves), valvular regurgitation (leakage of valves due to incomplete closure) or defects in the heart wall allowing blood to flow in unusual directions. <ref>http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartmurmur/</ref>
|Examination of the heart of a patient with TOF may reveal a loud second heart sound (produced by the closure of the pulmonary valve). A harsh ''systolic ejection murmur'' may be heard and a palpable thrill may be felt along the left sternal border. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA </ref> These sounds occur because the pulmonary outflow tract is obstructed. Although this murmur is often present, sometimes it may be short or difficult to hear and is often missed on physical examination. A pansystolic (occurring throughout the whole of systole) murmur may also be heard. This type of murmur occurs due to the ventricular septal defect between the left and right ventricles. The increased pressure in the left ventricle forces blood back into the right ventricle, causing a murmur, which lasts the whole of systole (contraction phase). <ref name="PMID21048055
"/>
|[[File:Heart_murmur_TOF.png‎|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Electrocardiogram'''
|Once TOF is suspected, electrocardiogram and chest radiographs are performed. Electrocardiography is used to assess the electrical activity of the heart. The electrical activity is detected by electrodes, which are placed on the skin of the patient and recorded by an external device. <ref>Braunwald E. (Editor), Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Fifth Edition, p. 108, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co., 1997</ref>
|The electrocardiogram is extremely important in detecting a right bundle branch block (a block in the electrical conducting system of the heart), which is common in patients with TOF. An electrocardiogram will also reveal a heart that is deviated slightly to the right and an enlarged right ventricle due to the ventricular hypertrophy.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Doctor performing an ECG on patient.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Chest radiograph'''
|A chest radiograph (or chest x-ray) uses ionising radiation to develop an image of the patient’s chest. It is used to diagnose many conditions including conditions of the thorax and structures within the thoracic cavity including the heart, lungs and major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Chest radiographs are often used to screen for certain diseases but further tests are required for a definitive diagnosis.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003804.htm</ref>
|In a patient with TOF, a chest radiograph will demonstrate a prominent right ventricular shadow, giving the heart a boot-like appearance, which is typical of patients with TOF. The right ventricular hypertrophy causes the apex of the right ventricle to rise on top of the relatively unfilled left ventricle, giving the heart its boot-shaped appearance on examination. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed>19144126</pubmed></ref> The radiograph will also show a right-sided aorta in approximately one-quarter of patients.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Chestxrayfallot.jpg|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Echocardiogram'''
|An echocardiogram (also called a cardiac ultrasound) is performed to confirm the above findings. Echocardiography uses ultrasound to produce two-dimensional (and now also three-dimensional) images of the heart. It assesses cardiac tissue, valve function, the velocity of blood flow and any abnormal communications within the heart.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003869.htm</ref>
|The echocardiogram identifies important abnormalities of the heart including obstruction of the pulmonary outflow tract, the size of the pulmonary arteries, the degree of aortic override and the size of the defect in the interventricular septum. <ref name="PMID19144126 "/>
| [[File:Some common effects for patients with Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Magnetic resonance imaging'''
|Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is evolving as the most important technique for evaluating the size and functioning of the right ventricle. An MRI machine uses a magnetic field to produce a detailed image of the scanned area of the body. It is especially useful in viewing soft tissues as it provides greater contrast than techniques such as x-ray. <ref>Squire LF, Novelline RA (1997). Squire's fundamentals of radiology (5th ed.). Harvard University Press</ref>
|MRI’s are important in assessing pulmonary valve competence and the severity of regurgitation (the amount of blood that flows back into the right ventricle due to the incomplete closure of the pulmonary valves) in patients with TOF. It can measure the volume and mass of the right and left ventricles and can assess the degree of pulmonary outflow tract obstruction. Finally, MRIs are important in measuring the degree of ventricular septal defect.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Magnetic Resonance Imaging in an adult patient with tof.JPG|200px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

==Treatment/Management==
The treatment for TOF consists of medical therapy, surgery & palliative procedures.

===='''Medical therapy:'''====

Medical therapy is usually used to prepare the infant/adult for surgery. The degree of therapy and what is used for treatment, depends upon the degree of cyanosis found in the patient.

*Patients with acute cyanosis usually carry out knee to chest exercise positions<ref name= "PMID19144126"/> in order to decrease the amount of deoxygenated blood entering circulation. This along with providing oxygen & intravenous morphine to provides more blood flow to the lungs and also decrease ventilator drive. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b3></ref>

*Patients with severe cyanosis are usually administered intravenous propranolol, which allows for decreases in the muscle spasms that occur in the infundibulum (which causes RVOTO). <ref name="PMID19683809"/>

*Asymptomatic patients do not require any particular medical treatment.

===='''Palliative Procedures:'''====
[[File:The Blalock Taussig Shunt.jpg|thumb|The Blalock Taussig Shunt]]
''The Blalock-Taussig Shunt:''

Total corrective surgery is the most advantageous option for young infants<ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. However, in some instances, infants suffering from pulmonary atresia or other anomalies (in addition to TOF) may require a palliative method instead<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156></ref> because the anomaly changes the candidate’s capability to having total corrective surgery. In some instances, infants with very small pulmonary arteries cannot tolerate corrective surgery and require palliation instead.
The main aim of palliative surgery is to increase pulmonary blood flow and allow for growth and possibly total correction of the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"><pubmed>19040408</pubmed></ref>.
By far, the most common procedure is the modified Blalock-Taussig Shut (B-T shunt). This shunt is placed between the pulmonary and subclavian arteries (on the same side)<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>. The original B-T shunt was placed by anastomosing a branch of the transected subclavian artery and the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>, but the classic B-T shunt had a disadvantage of thrombosis that occurred due to the small size of the vessel.

The major advantage of the modified Blalock-taussig shunt is that it<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"/>:
*Directs partially oxygenated blood from the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery (hence the lungs for oxygenation), therefore relieving cyanosis
*Allows for preservation of subclavian artery
*The shunt can be used on either side
*Allows for easier control and closure of the shunt at the time of complete repair.

Due to this feature, the shunt has an excellent success rate.

Complications of the B-T shunt are rare, but usually include<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.chdinfo.com/aa/aa112397.htm></ref>:
*Blockage of the shunt – causing the blue colour of the patient to return
*Infection – the ‘foreign’ shunt may become a site for bacteria to implant & cause infection.
*Distortion of the pulmonary artery arises as the child grows and the point at which the shunt is attached to the artery may not grow and which causes a kink in the artery to develop.
Other shunts such as the Potts, Waterston and Glenn shunts are either not used or infrequently used today (see table below for more details). <ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156</ref>
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Type of shunt'''
|'''Descriptions'''
|'''Reasons for it not being used'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Pott’s shunt'''
| This shunt is a connection that is established between the descending portion of the Aorta (on the left side of chest) to the left branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| The shunt has a tendency to increase the pulmonary blood flow, pulmonary hypertension, causes blood flow to be preferential to one of the lungs, the shunt causes kinking in the Pulmonary artery and it is also very hard to close when complete repair is undertaken. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
|[[File:Potts Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Waterston shunt'''
| This shunt was placed between the back of the Aorta, to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This shunt’s use is more suited to those with Pulmonary artery stenosis and also the procedure is quite difficult to perform. It causes excessive pulmonary blood flow and hypertension and congestive cardiac failure has been found in 20% of patients that have the Waterston or Pott's shunt <ref name="PMID4813185"><pubmed>4813185</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Waterston Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Glenn shunt'''
| The superior vena cava is anastomosed via a shunt to the right Pulmonary artery (the classic Glenn shunt). The modified Glenn shunt is where the superior vena cava is attached to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery, which is till connected to the main Pulmonary artery.<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This procedure is very complicated and difficult to perform, also complete repair becomes a laborious task. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
| [[File:Glenn Shunt.jpg|120px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

===='''Surgery:'''====

Today Tetralogy of fallot can only be treated with open-heart surgery, which is usually performed before 6 months of age<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>.

The goal of surgery is to be able to treat the four congenital abnormalities associated with TOF. It is also advantageous to perform this surgery at an early age and not wait until the child is older, however the specific timing of the operation is still under some controversy<ref name= "PMID21048055"/>.

[[File:Treatment of TOF surgery.png|300px|thumb|Surgical treatment of Tetralogy of Fallot]]

Surgeries occur under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and are performed either through the atrium (Transatrial) or from the right atrium/from the pulmonary artery (transatrial-transpulmonary) <ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. Surgical approaches are the most common in patients of all ages.

If a patient has had palliative procedures, these shunts must be isolated and taken down <ref name= "Medscape Reference - Corrective Surgery">< http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b6></ref>, before the actual operation can commence.
In the surgery itself, the surgeon:

* Widens the narrowed pulmonary blood vessels and the pulmonary valve itself, hence allowing for greater blood flow to the lungs.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>
* Repairs the ventricular septal defect using a patch to cover the hole in the septum.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>

Fixing these two defects also solves the other two defects (the hypertrophy of the right ventricle wall and provides oxygenated blood to the aorta). When the surgery is carried out during infancy, the incision heals in roughly 6 weeks.

More information regarding Treatment and Surgery can be found here:
|[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRnn1etH2tE&list=FL2TNt6Azyu0rD9Oqj3mYdEg&index=1 Tetralogy of Fallot Repair]|[http://www.youtube.com/user/ChildrensHospPhila#p/u/49/jgLC2QABcxo Treatment Options for Tetralogy of Fallot]

==Prognosis==

If a person has undetected TOF or has not undergone corrective surgery, then the usual outcome depends upon the severity of the Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction (RVOTO)

A person suffering from severe RVOTO
Has a 25% chance to die in the first year, 40% chance of dying within 3 years, 70% chance to die by the age of 10 and a 95% chance of death by the age of 40.<ref name="PMID20091166"/>
[[File:Major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients.png|thumb|300px|Pie Graph of major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients|]]
The major causes of death in surgically untreated patients are
*Hypoxia spells – 62%
* Cerebrovascular accidents – 17%
* Brain abscesses – 13% <ref name="PMID20091166"/>

If a patient undergoes elective surgery then the patient has a low mortality rate of just 2% (in & directly after surgery) and a long-term survival rate of 85-90%<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>. In the absence of other serious complications, patients are able to live normal lives, shown by the possibility to carry out a successful pregnancy.

Whilst this may be the case many patients go on to develop an insufficient pulmonary valve<ref name= "Future - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b9></ref> (where upon contraction of the right ventricle, blood flows backwards from the pulmonary arteries in to the right ventricle). This causes the right ventricle to work harder and hence become dilated.

This can lead to hindered function of the right ventricle and cause fatigue.

Another outcome of repair can be a narrowing at the outflow area/branch of pulmonary arteries<Ref name= "Living with Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/livingwith.html></ref>, which produces high pressure in the right ventricle and can lead to further corrective surgery being undertaken.

Finally, whilst corrective TOF surgery repairs the anomalies, it is crucial that long term follow up with a cardiologist be mandatory to detect any problems, whether they be recurring or new. Hence patients are advised to carry out physical examinations, echocardiography and other exams as the patient matures into a teenager and adult years.<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>

==Future Directions==

In the last decade, several innovations have been developed for possible treatment methods and also management of TOF, these include:

===='''Percutaneous Pulmonary valve replacement:'''====

This has been the most promising and exciting area for the past decade, with majority of focus going into conduit rehabilitation between the pulmonary artery and right ventricle. The replacement is designed for patients who have already had TOF elective surgery and are in need of pulmonary valve replacement. The percutaneous pulmonary valve is composed of a bovine internal jugular vein, with the native valve (bovine) fixed into a platinum stent it is moved along into the right ventricular outflow via fluoroscopic control. This control allows for the valve to be fixed precisely by inflation, using a balloon in balloon method [Christian Apitz, Gary D Webb, Andrew N Redington Tetralogy of Fallot. Lancet: 2009, 374(9699);1462-71 PMID:19683809]]<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. If the percutaneous pulmonary valve proves to have great success and long-term durability, it has the potential to allow for earlier intervention in such cases [David Fox, Ganesh P Devendra, Stephen A Hart, Richard A Krasuski When 'blue babies' grow up: What you need to know about tetralogy of Fallot. Cleve Clin J Med: 2010, 77(11);821-8 PMID:21048055]<ref name="PMID21048055"/> . So far no mortality or late mortality has been registered in the patients tested.

===='''Oral Drug Therapy'''====

Pharmacologic therapy could be used to alter the clinical outcomes that arise with pulmonary insufficiency, which may develop from tetralogy of fallot. Scientists and researchers are using MRI imaging technology to see the effect that Nitric Oxide may have upon pulmonary vasodilation and are amidst of trialling similar oral drugs for long-term use [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

===='''Genetic Mutation & therapy'''====

Recently, congenital heart patients went under large-scale mutation screenings and several important genes (islet 1, Mef2c etc) [Xu H, Baldini A (2007) Genetic pathways to mammalian heart development: recent progress from manipulation of the mouse genome. PMID: 17178242]<ref><pubmed>17178242</pubmed></ref>, which are involved in cardiogenesis, have been identified. Identification of these genes can possibly provide markers for diagnosis of cardiac anomalies such as TOF. Work is also being done for genetic manipulation to be used as a therapeutic tool.

===='''In vitro engineered valves'''====

Finally creation of in vitro tissue engineered valves using human endothelial cells (using allograft techniques) has been shown to have long term durability and also reduce valve degeneration, cusp thickening or pulmonary insufficiency (trivial to mild) [Clinical application of tissue engineered human heart valves using autologous progenitor cells. PMID: 16820562]<ref><pubmed>16820562</pubmed></ref>. Creation of such valves has great promise for the world of cardiac congenital diseases as it will allow greater options for valve replacement and allow for growth and remodelling as the child continues through somatic growth. [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

==Glossary==

[[#Introduction | '''Back to top''']]
'''Anastomosing''' - connection made surgically between adjacent blood vessels.

'''Annular hypoplasia''' – (need definition)

'''Anomalies''' - something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected.

'''Arrythmia''' - (dysrhythmia) Abnormal electrical activity of the heart resulting in either a fast, slow, or irregular heart beat.

'''Asymptomatic''' - producing or showing no symptoms.

'''Ascites''' – Excess fluid in the space between the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organs (the peritoneal cavity).

'''Cardiopulmonary bypass''' - Blood returning to the heart is diverted through a heart-lung machine (a pump-oxygenator) before returning it to the arterial circulation. The machine does the work both of the heart (pump blood) and the lungs (supply oxygen to red blood cells).

'''Clubbing''' – Changes in the areas under and around the toenails and fingernails, and in the nails themselves that may occur with some disorders

'''Congenital''' - a disease or physical abnormality present from birth.

'''Cyanosis''' - Clinical term referring to a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin. One cause of cyanosis is cyanotic heart disease.

'''Cyanotic heart disease''' - Clinical term referring to a congenital heart abnormality (defect) resulting in lack of oxygen that causes cyanosis (a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin).

'''Dyspnoea''' – Shortness of breath, difficult or laboured breathing

'''Edema/Oedema''' - Swelling caused by the accumulation of abnormally large amounts of fluid in the spaces between the body's cells or in the circulatory system.

'''Hepatomegaly''' – Swelling of the liver beyond its normal size.

'''Hypertension''' - A medical condition where the pressure within the systemic arteries is raised, causing the heart to work harder than normal.

'''Hypertrophy''' - Increase in size of an organ due to an increase in the size of its cells.

'''Infundibulum''' - a funnel-shaped cavity or structure.

'''Intravenous''' - existing or taking place, within veins.

'''Laborious''' - requiring considerable effort and time.

'''Morphine''' - an analgesic and narcotic drug obtained from opium and used medicinally to relieve pain.

'''Murmur''' – Blowing, whooshing, or rasping sounds heard during a heartbeat. The sound is caused by turbulent blood flow through the heart valves or near the heart.

'''Palliative care''' - Healthcare that focuses on preventing and relieving suffering.

'''Palpitation''' – Unusually or abnormally rapid or violent beating of the heart.

'''Pulmonary Atresia''' - a form of congenital heart disease in which the pulmonary valve does not form properly

'''Pulmonary valve insufficiency''' - A condition where the pulmonary valve is not strong enough to prevent the back flow on blood into the right ventricle.

'''Shunt''' – A channel through which blood or other bodily fluid is diverted from its normal path by surgical reconstruction or by a synthetic tube.

'''Stenosis''' - An abnormal narrowing, usually in relation to a tube. For example, blood vessel, gastrointestinal tract or respiratory tract narrowing.

'''Syncope''' – Brief loss of consciousness associated with transient cerebral anemia, as in heart block, sudden lowering of the blood pressure, etc.; fainting.

'''Systolic ejection murmur''' - A heart murmur heard during the contraction phase of the heart.

'''Tet spell''' - A hypoxic attack due to a lack of circulating oxygen. A tet spell is characterised by shortness of breath and brieff loss of consciousness.

'''Thrombosis''' - local coagulation or clotting of the blood in a part of the circulatory system.

'''ventilator drive''' -

==Internal links==

Cardiovascular development abnormalities
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/Notes/heart2.htm#Fallot

Advanced cardiac embryology
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Advanced_Cardiac_Embryology

Cardiovascular system development
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Cardiovascular_System_Development

Cardiovascular development lecture
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_21

==References==

<references/>

----

{{2011Projects}}

2011 Group Project 6

2011-10-12T08:42:18Z

Z3291423: /* Future Directions */

{{2011ProjectsMH}}

=Tetralogy of Fallot=

==Introduction==

[[File:Tetralogy_of_fallot_after_surgery.png‎| thumb | 300px | right | Baby with Tetralogy of Fallot- The morning after surgery]]

Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is a congenital heart disease affecting approximately 3 in 10000 people. It is the most common form of congenital heart disease, accounting for about 1 in 10 cases. <ref name="PMID1689816"><pubmed>1689816</pubmed></ref> TOF was named after Etienne-Louis Fallot for his description of the anatomy and physiology of the defects associated with the disease.<ref name="PMID:19683809
"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> TOF is believed to be caused by a genetic mutation of chromosomes 5,20 and 25, which impact the development of the neonatal heart. These genetic mutations contribute to the four characteristic defects of TOF:

* Pulmonary stenosis: a narrowing of the blood flow path from the right ventricle to the lungs.
* Overiding aorta: an aorta which is continuous with both ventricles instead of just the left one.
* Ventricular septal defect: the septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete
* Right ventricular hypertrophy: enlargement of the cells in the right ventricle. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed></pubmed>19144126</ref>

TOF patients are given the name 'blue babies' because they often have a slightly blue appearance due to the decreased circulating oxygen levels. Some common symptoms in TOF patients include turning blue while crying, collapsing due to ''tet spells'' during exercise, dizziness and fatigue.

Etienne Fallot, Helen Taussig and Alfred Blalock have significantly contributed to the understanding of the cardiac anomalies and treatment options associated with TOF. Currently, surgery is the most successful treatment option, however ''palliative care'' and medical treatment is also available. Due to technology advancements, doctors are able to detect TOF more accurately and treat patients quicker, allowing an increase in survival rate and a favourable long term prognosis.

Whilst the understanding of this disease has grown greatly, future treatment options are continuously being explored. These include developing durable and efficient surgical procedures, shunts and valves.

==History==

====Early History====
[[File:Dr Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot]]

In '''1671''', Niels Stenson was the first to anatomically describe Tetralogy of Fallot. However, the precise descriptions of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot were done in '''1784''' by William Hunter at St Georges Hospital Medical School in London. His description is as follows<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> :

{| style="border: solid 3px #8eb2ec"
|- align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0"
|''“…the passage from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which should have admitted a finger, was not so wide as a goose quill; and there was a hole in the partition of the two ventricles, large enough to pass the thumb from one to the other. The greatest part of the blood in the right ventricle was driven with that of the left ventricle into the aorta, or great artery, and so lost all the advantage which it ought to have had from breathing”''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|}

Hunter’s description of the defected heart’s anatomy along with its resulting physiology was further specified and advanced by Etienne-Louis Fallot. However it was Maude Abbott from Canada who coined the term ‘Tetralogy of Fallot’ in '''1924'''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.

====Contemporary History====

In '''1938''' there was a dawn in surgical therapy for people with heart defects as Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent ductus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7.<ref name="PMID7888802"><pubmed>7888802</pubmed></ref> [[File:Dr Helen Brooke Taussig.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Helen Brooke Taussig]]

Later, it was the work of Helen Taussig with her using a fluoroscope which allowed her to determine that children suffering from cyanosis, especially those with TOF, had decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation and thus more blood was needed to enter into this circulation. She then put forward a concept that shows the benefits of an ‘artificial ductus’; as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells weeks after the baby was born<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

It was in the morning of '''1943''' in which Taussig explained to [http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/diglib/sc_diglib/biopages/ablalock.html Blalock] and [http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah/thomas-vivien-1910-1985 Thomas] that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods. It was only a year later in which this belief came into practice as a cyanotic congenital heart experienced the first successful treatment due to surgical means. This technique was conducted on another two cases with the same defect and thus due to such success from the surgeries, the concept had received worldwide success.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>

During the '''1950s''', the rise of open heart surgery began and the era of closed-heart surgery dominance had ceased. It was also during the '''1950s''' to '''1970s''' that surgeons realised the great variance in the anatomy of TOF, thus they had to work out new surgical techniques to accommodate this variation. Also during this period, there was an appreciation by surgeons that whilst conducting such operations in the heart, there needs to be precision in how they conduct their work anatomically. Thus in this 20 year period, there was a number of surgeons who had successfully conducted intracardiac surgeries to infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

During her late years of work Dr Taussig had hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in the infants. At the time the hypothesis received skepticism, however today studies show us that this idea is quite real <ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

====Surgical History====

The first procedures for Tetralogy of Fallot were being conducted from around the '''1950s'''. Due the advances in the areas of medicine which support and maintain surgeries, children born with Tetralogy of Fallot now have a great chance of survive to adulthood<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. In retrospective studies it shows how surgical procedures have improved. From the '''1950s''' till today, the mortality rate from surgery dropped from 50% to less than 2%<ref name="PMID21251297"><pubmed>21251297</pubmed></ref>.

It was in '''1945''' that Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’ and in '''1954''' that Varco and Lillehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing a open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>.

During the surgeries in the past the surgeons will place a shunt between the pulmonary artery and a systemic artery of a child with Tetralogy of Fallot as this will allow some improvement in the oxygenation of the infant’s blood. It will be later when the individual grows up that the shunt will be removed then the heart will be repaired. Now surgeons prefer to repair the heart in the initial operation to repair the infants heart<ref name="PMID21048055"><pubmed>21048055</pubmed></ref>.

====Timeline====

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Year'''
|'''Milestones'''
|-
|align="center"|'''1628'''
| William Harvey published his work ''De Motu Cordis'' which portrayed a groundbreaking understanding that the two criculatory systems, pulmonary and systemic, and independant of each other.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1671'''
| Stenson anatomically described Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1784'''
| William Hunter gave a precise description of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1847'''
| Chevers acknowledged the absence of pulmonary valve in Tetralogy of Fallot hearts.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1850s'''
| Peacock was a pioneer in using a stethoscope to discover a cardiac murmur with a heart with pulmonary stenosis.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Fallot destroyed the idea that cyanosis had always occured due to inability of the foramen ovale to close. Also, he was the one to use the term ''tetralogie'', and furthermore acknowledged that there was no therapeutic treatments for patients of TOF during his time<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Etienne-Louis Fallot specified and advanced the description of Tetralogy of Fallot’s heart anatomy and its resulting physiology<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1924'''
| Maude Abbott coined the term “Tetralogy of Fallot”<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1930s'''
| Helen Taussig using fluoroscope determined that TOF patients suffer cyanosis because of decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation. She then proposed the benefits of an “artificial ductus” in TOF neonates, as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1936'''
| Abbot demonstrated the Chest X-ray, 3-lead electrocardiogram and circulatory and auscilatory diagrams that were produced from a Tetralogy of Fallot heart<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1938'''
| Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent dusctus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1943'''
| Taussig explained to Blalock and Thomas that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1945'''
| Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950'''
| Beginning of the rise of open heart surgery<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1954'''
| Varco and Lilehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing an open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950-70'''
| Realisation of variance in the anatomy of TOF. This became the period of success for intracardiac surgeries to infant<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''mid 1970s'''
| Advancements in Infant surgery, introduction of prostaglandin therapy and rise in electrocardiography signficantly affected the patients with Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1990s'''
| Dr Taussig hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|}

==Epidemiology==

Tetralogy of Fallot is considered to be a rare genetic disorder. It makes up around 7%-10% of cardiac congenital defects. Moreover, epidemiological studies show that it occurs in 3 out of 10000 live births that are delivered. After the neonatal age, Tetralogy of Fallot is the most frequent cause of ''cyanotic heart disease''. Additionally, Tetralogy of Fallot slightly affects more males than females.<ref name="PMID20091166"><pubmed>20091166</pubmed></ref>

The incidence of TOF seems to occur sporadically, even though there is a 3% risk of reoccurrence in a sibling (without any other first degree relatives affected by TOF). However, Mothers who are 35 years and older have an increased risk that their offspring will have TOF, whilst on the other hand mothers who have 2 or more children have a decreased risk.

Below is a table which shows the incidence rates of TOF in different races[ref]:
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff" align="center"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Race'''
|'''Incidence of TOF malformation (per 10,000)'''
|-
|align="center"|''Whites''
|align="center"| 2.85
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Hispanics''
|align="center"| 2.31
|-
|align="center"|''Asians''
|align="center"| 2.83
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Blacks''
|align="center"| 3.81
|-
|align="center"|''Other''
|align="center"| 3.80
|}

In regards to genetics, one study showed that in 25% of the cases of TOF there is a microdeletion on Chromosome 22 which has the q11 region within it. Moreover, TOF is associated and frequently diagniosed along side Velocardiofacial syndrome and Di George Syndrome. Interestingly, another study showed that there is a rate of 25% in which patients with this 22q11 mutation eventually develop schizophrenia.

Tetralogy of Fallot is also associated with the chromosomal anomalies Trisomy 21, 18 and 13, and also associated with Alagille syndrome which has JAG1. The most frequently associated genetic anomalies with tetralogy of Fallot is Trisomy 21 and 22q11.2 deletion.Furthermore, mutations in the 5q35 section (which codes for NKX2.5) were found in 4% of TOF patients which are classified as non-syndromic TOF.

In respect to clinical features, 35% of patients with TOF have Ventricular and Atrial arrhythmias. A 30 year follow up period of patients with TOF have shown that 6% of them die due to sudden cardiac death.

TOF is treated with surgery (see Treatment section below). When this is conducted before the age of six months, there is a low mortality rate associated with it (i.e. 2%). After surgical intervention is conducted, there is an 85-90% survival rate. It is clearly possible that improvements in the surgical field has allowed the reduction in surgical mortality which was 50% in the late 1950’s to 2% with contemporary surgical methods. On the other hand, if a TOF patient decides not to correct their condition, there is a 10% chance they will survive till their age is in the 30s and a 3% chance they will survive till their forties or older. Before surgical interventions were possible, TOF patients usually died within the first few years after birth, and it was rather unusual to see a patient who had survived beyond 30 years of age.

In regards to survival statistics, after surgery is conducted to correct TOF there is a:
* 97% chance that the patient will live one year after the surgery
* 98% chance that the patient will survive 20 years after the surgery if they were alive 30 days post surgery
* 90% chance that the patient will survive 30 years post surgery if they were operated on whilst they were children

From epidemiological studies conducted in regards to mortality rates in respect to congenital heart disease in the US between 1979-2005, there was a 40% reduction in mortality that was linked to Tetralogy of Fallot. It is thought that this reduction in mortality was associated to the ‘earlier recognition and treatment of heart failure and arrythmia’ which allowed this change in mortality rates to occur.<ref><pubmed>19853711</pubmed></ref>

==Signs and Symptoms==

'''Cyanosis'''

Normally, red blood cells carry oxygen around the body that is nearly completely saturated with oxygen held by the haemoglobin. When blood loses its oxygen, the colour changes from bright red colour to a colour that is a mix of dark blue and red. This event is known as cyanosis. Cyanosis could occur in situations in which the lungs are compromised due to underlying reasons such as the lungs being infected with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and exposure to air at high altitudes. In the case of TOF patients, one of the heart defects (i.e. ventricular septal defect, explained further below) allows cyanosis to occur as the blood oxygen concentration is decreased due to the mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the TOF heart’s ventricles<ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration">http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003215.htm</ref>.

The most important sign of TOF patients is cyanosis. This is when the lips, fingernails and skin of the patient turns a bluish colour<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/signs.html</ref>. Additionally during cyanosis, the mucous membranes of the TOF patient may turn blue. Therefore, the cases where dark-skinned individuals may experience cyanosis, the cyanotic event could be observed by change in colour in the nails and mucous membranes, which include lips, around the eyes and gums <ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration"/>. Cyanosis is considered to occur due to decreased amounts of oxygenated haemoglobin found within the blood when cyanosis occurs <ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK367/</ref>.

''''Tet Spells' and Fatigue'''

The word 'Tet spells' is derived from Tetralogy of Fallot, as it is an event experieced by individuals who suffer from TOF. Babies who have TOF can at times enter into these ‘tet spells’, in which there is a sudden drop in oxygen saturation of the blood, causing the baby to turn blue. These 'Tet spells' become apparent when the baby does certain activities such as crying<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An image portraying a 'Tet spell' in an infant can be found here: [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/18134.htm Cyanotic 'Tet spell']

In addition to experiencing 'Tet spells', the baby could pass out, become unresponsive to their parents calling or touch, develop fatigue and finally have ''dyspnoea''. Furthermore, children with TOF would develop fatigue quickly and possibly pass out, thus surgeons now repair TOF hearts during infancy and not at adult to prevent such events.<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>

'''Heart Murmur'''

Heart murmurs are sound waves which are clearly audible that come from the vascular system or from the heart which have a round range between 20-2000Hz. It is considered to be produced as a consequence of blood flow within the cardiovascular system which is that is turbulent<ref><pubmed>14979389</pubmed></ref>. In the case of Tetralogy of Fallot, a heart murmur is a common sign which occurs due to the defected heart’s abnormal blood flow through it. However it should be mentioned that heart murmur is not a hallmark for congenital heart defects as many hearts of healthy children also have murmurs<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An audio sample of a heart murmur that would be heard in a TOF patient is found in the link below. Also below is a link to the sound of a normal heart beat without murmur and without TOF.

''Normal Heart:'' [http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=1&CourseID=22 First and Second Heart Sounds - Normal & Unsplit - Waveform and Audio] -- ''TOF Heart:''[http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=5&CourseID=29 Tetralogy of Fallot - Waveform and Audio]

The types of murmurs that can be present in the heart include <ref name="PMID21048055"/>:
:1. '''Pulmonary Insufficiency Murmur''' - which occurs briefly and low pitched in the diastolic phase of the heart beat. This murmur is often missed during a physical examination of the heart because it is heard to hear it and its duration is short
:2. '''Aortic Insufficency Murmur'''
:3. '''Right Ventricular Outflow Murmur''' – can also have a pansytolic (throughout the systole of the heart beat) murmur if there is a presence of ventricular septal defect found in the heart <ref name="PMID21048055"/>.

'''Abnormal Growth and Clubbing'''

Children with TOF do not grow at the rate of normal children as whilst breastfeeding in infancy, the babies would get tired quicker and during the growth of the infant, normal functionability of the heart and oxygen saturated blood is needed for proper growth <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. [[File:Finger-Clubbing.jpg |thumb| An example of finger clubbing|300px]]

TOF children may also have ''''clubbing''''. <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/> This clubbing would be evident as there would be enlargenemt of the bone or the skin around the fingernails of the patient. <ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001567.htm</ref>

'''Cardiac and Visceral Problems'''

It should also be mentioned that ''pulmonary insufficiency'' symptoms developed from a TOF heart varies in the degree of pulmonary insufficiency found in that individual. Thus the symptoms that could be presented are of a wide range which could from decline in function to palpitations. Moreover, late symptoms could also develop from the insufficiency which includes right heart failure, exertional dyspnea, ''syncope'' and palpitations. In an event of which right ventricular failure occurs, signs to indicate it include elevated jugular venous pressure, ''ascites'', ''hepatomegaly'', jugular venous distension and peripheral edema.<ref name="PMID21048055"/>

==Genetics/Aetiology==

The genetic etiology of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is still currently unknown and being researched. Even though this is the case, most of the studies done on the disorder have agreed that TOF normally occurs with other developmental disorders, like DiGeorge syndrome, and that the disorder may be caused by multiple mutations in a person’s genome. Here are some of the current suspected genetic mutations that leads to the congenital disease Tetralogy of Fallot.

===22q11.21===

* '''Gene profile'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TBX1</ref>: [[File:TBX1.jpeg|thumb|TBX1|400px]]
**Gene affected = TBX1
**Chromosome number = 22
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 11.21
**Base pair region = 19,744,225 to 19,771,115

Studies have shown 74% of patients with 22q11.2 microdeletions have Congenital Heart Defect, and out of these 22% have Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF).<ref><pubmed>11339373</pubmed></ref>. This is why mutation in this region of the chromosome is an important consideration for the genetic aetiology of TOF.

This gene is responsible for the production of T-box 1 protein transcription factor.It is a dose sensitive protein, meaning the amount of protein produced by the gene is reduced once there is increased amount of the transcription factor. It contributes to the development of the outflow tract and right ventricle of the heart. This is by regulating the expression of the genes via the binding of the protein to specific area in the DNA.<ref><pubmed>20937753</pubmed></ref> Unfortunately the genes regulated by this protein are still not well known, even though its mechanism and function have already been determined.

The most common genetic mutation of this gene that results in TOF is a microdeletion of 3 or 1.5 Mb of 22q11.2 region on chromosome 22 <ref name="PMID19948535"><pubmed>19948535</pubmed></ref>. The result of this microdeletion is a haploinsufficient gene. This is where there is only a single copy of the gene in one allele, which clinically leads to an abnormal functioning of the protein because a single copy of the gene is incapable of producing enough protein that will allow normal function.<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary=haploinsufficiency</ref>

Although microdeletion is the most common mutation in the TBX1 gene that results to TOF, there are other muattional variants that have been observed that resulted in non-syndromic TOF. This variant involves a heterozygous 30-bp duplication in exon 9c of the TBX1 gene of patients with TOF. This leads to the production of non-functioning TBX1 protein because the insertion of the duplicate leads to the expansion of the polyalanine tract. The proteins produced aggregates within the cytoplasm, leading to decrease in transcription of Tbx1 gene, since this gene is dose-dependent. Also the proteins produced are non-functioning, thus transcription of genes that the T-box 1 protein is responsible for is not initiated.<ref name="PMID19948535"/>

Mutation of the TBX1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*DiGeorge Syndrome
*Velocardiofacial Syndrome
*Conotruncal anomaly face syndrome

===5q34===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/NKX2-5</ref>:[[File:NKX2-5.jpeg|thumb|400px|NKX2-5]]
**Gene affected = NKX2-5
**Chromosome number = 5
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 34
**Base pair region = 172,659,106 to 172,662,314

Studies have shown that at least 4% of TOF patients have NKX2-5 mutation. Patients with this mutation are also found to be non-syndromic TOF patients. This is why the mutation in this gene is considered in the development of TOF.<ref name="PMID1714651"><pubmed>1714651</pubmed></ref>

It encodes the NK2 homeobox 5 transcription factor. NK2 homeobox 5 is essential in tissue differentiation and temporal and spatial patterns of development in cardiac tissue.<ref><pubmed>7665173</pubmed></ref>. This protein is particularly involved in the development of atrial, ventricular and conotruncal septation, AV conduction and AV valve formation<ref><pubmed>10587520</pubmed></ref>.

There are 3 known substitution mutation of the NKX2-5 gene in TOF patients resulting in right-sided aortic arch, mirror-image aortic arch branching, and a retroaortic innominate vein<ref name="PMID1714651"/>. This includes:
*glu-to-gln at codon 21 position
*arg-to cys at codon 216 position
*ala-to val at codon 219 position

Mutation of the NKX2-5 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Hypothyroidism
*Congenital nengoitrous
*Atrial septal defect with atrioventricular conduction defects

===20p12.1-p11.23===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/JAG1</ref>:[[File:JAG1.jpeg|thumb|JAG1|400px]]
**Gene affected = JAG1
**Chromosome number = 20
**Chromosomal arm = p (short arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 12.1 to 11.23
**Base pair region = 10,618,331 to 10,654,693

The typical clinical presentation of mutation in this gene is a disease called Alagille Syndrome (AGS) that have some clinical overlap with that of TOF, which are mainly right heart abnormalities.<ref><pubmed>12427653</pubmed></ref> This makes mutation in this gene of special interest when it comes to TOF

The gene is composed of about 36 kb with 26 exons,<ref><pubmed>9268641</pubmed></ref> and expresses the gene expresses Jagged-1 protein, which is a ligand of the Notch receptor<ref name="PMID11869892"><pubmed>11869892</pubmed></ref>. JAG1 Gene is highly expressed in developing mammalian heart, thus Jagged-1 ligands are present on cardiac cell membranes<ref><pubmed>10556292</pubmed></ref>. With the Notch receptor present on adjacent cells, Jagged-1 protein is involved in intercellular signalling between adjacent cells. This is because ligand-receptor bond leads to the release of the receptor’s intracellular region from the membrane. This part is transported into the nucleus activating transcription factors that affects cellular function, leading to cell differentiation and morphogenesis.<ref name="PMID11869892"/>

There is a missesnse mutation of the JAG1 gene (G274D), which is gly-to-asp substitution. This may lead to the formation of cysteine residues that results in the formation of abnormal protein because its structure and stability has been compromised.<ref name="PMID11152664"><pubmed>11152664</pubmed></ref> There are 2 types of proteins resulting from the mutation of the allele with the abnormal functioning protein produced at higher temperature<ref><pubmed>12649809</pubmed></ref>:
*Abnormally glycosylated Jagged-1protein that was retained intracellularly and not transported to cell surface
*Normally glycosylated protein that retains its function as a ligand to NOTCH receptor, as it is transported to the cell surface
The result is the development of traits that are characteristic of TOF, including ventricular septal defect with aortic dextroposition and isolated pulmonic stenosis.<ref name="PMID11152664"/>

Mutation of the JAG1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Alagille Syndrome
*Deafness
*Congenital heart defects
*Posterior embryotoxon

==Pathophysiology and Abnormalities==

{| border="0px"
|-
|The four pathological features of tetralogy of fallot are:

# Pulmonary stenosis
# Overriding aorta
# Ventricular septal defect
# Right ventricular hypertrophy

These features result from the disruption of the aortic and pulmonary outflow tracts. The severity of symptoms is determined by the extent of right ventricular outflow obstruction.<ref name="PMID19144126"/>

'''''Pulmonary stenosis''''' - Pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']] may be caused by a narrowing of the pulmonary valve (valvular stenosis) or the outflow tract of the right ventricle (infundibular stenosis). <ref name="PMID14132270"><pubmed>14132270</pubmed></ref> The narrowing of either the valve or the infundibulum obstructs the flow of blood from the right ventricle into the pulmonary circulation. Consequently, this results in a reduced flow of oxygenated blood in the systemic circulation. If the degree of pulmonary stenosis is mild, a left to right shunt forms. (The higher pressure in the left ventricle causes blood to pass through the septal defect into the right ventricle). However, if the pulmonary stenosis is significant, a right to left shunt will form. <ref name="PMID15934690 "><pubmed>15934690 </pubmed></ref> This occurs because the stenosis raises the pressure in the right ventricle and forces blood directly into the left ventricle. This is important because deoxygenated blood can now enter the systemic circulation and problems such as [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']], dizziness and fainting can occur. The pathophysiology of pulmonary stenosis usually worsens with age because the pulmonary orifice stays the same size despite an increase in the size of the heart. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Overriding aorta''''' - Instead of being positioned directly over the left ventricle, the aorta is displaced anterosuperiorly (in front of and above). The aortic valve is located directly above the interventricular septal defect allowing blood from both the left and right ventricles to pass through the aortic valve. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref> This biventricular connection allows both oxygenated (from left ventricle) and deoxygenated blood (from right ventricle) to enter the systemic circulation. The degree to which the overriding aorta is continuous with the right ventricle determines the severity of symptoms. <ref name="PMID11520451"><pubmed>11520451</pubmed></ref>

'''''Ventricular septal defect''''' - The interventricular septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete at its superior, membranous end. <ref name="PMID19683809 "/> During ventricular contraction, blood from the left ventricle is forced into the right ventricle and then re-enters the pulmonary circulation. This extra volume of blood places pressure of the pulmonary system and compensatory pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''hypertension''']] and right ventricular [[#Glossary | '''hypertrophy''']] may occur. If the right ventricular pressure exceeds that of the left, the left to right shunt is reversed and the patient will experience [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']] because deoxygenated blood is bypassing the lungs and entering the systemic circulation. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Right ventricular hypertrophy''''' - [[#Glossary | '''Hypertrophy''']] of the right ventricle is a compensatory response to pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']]. Because the pulmonary outflow tract is narrowed, the right ventricle must pump harder to meet the oxygen demands of the body. <ref name="PMID3068155"><pubmed>3068155</pubmed></ref>

The diagram on the right shows the blood flow in a normal heart and the blood flow in a patient with Tetralogy of Fallot.
|[[File:Tetralogy of fallot-the 4 defects.jpg|220px|thumb|Tetralogy of fallot-the four defects]]
[[File:Normal fetal blood flow and Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg |360px|thumb| Fetal blood flow in a normal heart and in a Tetralogy of Fallot heart]]
|}

==Diagnostic Tests==

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Diagnostic technique'''
|'''How the technique works'''
|'''Presentation in a TOF patient'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Physical examination'''
| TOF is often diagnosed during fetal life by echocardiography.<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref>
If TOF is not detected during fetal life, certain signs and symptoms at birth may alert the need for further investigation.
|Signs and symptoms include mild to moderate cyanosis, which worsens when the baby cries, difficulty feeding and difficulty gaining weight. However, TOF often goes undiagnosed until adult life. Most adult patients will appear normal, however, some may present with ''cyanosis'' and clubbing of the fingers. The jugular venous pressure is usually normally (raised jugular venous pressure often indicates right ventricular failure). If the aorta is pushed to the right (so it is continuous with both the left and right ventricle), a lift below the right sternoclavicular joint may be noted. <ref name="PMID8272784"><pubmed>8272784</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Clinical examination TOF.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Heart murmurs'''
|Heart murmurs are sounds caused by the turbulent flow of blood. They are heard using a stethoscope. They are often the result of problems including valvular stenosis (narrowing of valves), valvular regurgitation (leakage of valves due to incomplete closure) or defects in the heart wall allowing blood to flow in unusual directions. <ref>http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartmurmur/</ref>
|Examination of the heart of a patient with TOF may reveal a loud second heart sound (produced by the closure of the pulmonary valve). A harsh ''systolic ejection murmur'' may be heard and a palpable thrill may be felt along the left sternal border. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA </ref> These sounds occur because the pulmonary outflow tract is obstructed. Although this murmur is often present, sometimes it may be short or difficult to hear and is often missed on physical examination. A pansystolic (occurring throughout the whole of systole) murmur may also be heard. This type of murmur occurs due to the ventricular septal defect between the left and right ventricles. The increased pressure in the left ventricle forces blood back into the right ventricle, causing a murmur, which lasts the whole of systole (contraction phase). <ref name="PMID21048055
"/>
|[[File:Heart_murmur_TOF.png‎|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Electrocardiogram'''
|Once TOF is suspected, electrocardiogram and chest radiographs are performed. Electrocardiography is used to assess the electrical activity of the heart. The electrical activity is detected by electrodes, which are placed on the skin of the patient and recorded by an external device. <ref>Braunwald E. (Editor), Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Fifth Edition, p. 108, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co., 1997</ref>
|The electrocardiogram is extremely important in detecting a right bundle branch block (a block in the electrical conducting system of the heart), which is common in patients with TOF. An electrocardiogram will also reveal a heart that is deviated slightly to the right and an enlarged right ventricle due to the ventricular hypertrophy.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Doctor performing an ECG on patient.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Chest radiograph'''
|A chest radiograph (or chest x-ray) uses ionising radiation to develop an image of the patient’s chest. It is used to diagnose many conditions including conditions of the thorax and structures within the thoracic cavity including the heart, lungs and major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Chest radiographs are often used to screen for certain diseases but further tests are required for a definitive diagnosis.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003804.htm</ref>
|In a patient with TOF, a chest radiograph will demonstrate a prominent right ventricular shadow, giving the heart a boot-like appearance, which is typical of patients with TOF. The right ventricular hypertrophy causes the apex of the right ventricle to rise on top of the relatively unfilled left ventricle, giving the heart its boot-shaped appearance on examination. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed>19144126</pubmed></ref> The radiograph will also show a right-sided aorta in approximately one-quarter of patients.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Chestxrayfallot.jpg|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Echocardiogram'''
|An echocardiogram (also called a cardiac ultrasound) is performed to confirm the above findings. Echocardiography uses ultrasound to produce two-dimensional (and now also three-dimensional) images of the heart. It assesses cardiac tissue, valve function, the velocity of blood flow and any abnormal communications within the heart.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003869.htm</ref>
|The echocardiogram identifies important abnormalities of the heart including obstruction of the pulmonary outflow tract, the size of the pulmonary arteries, the degree of aortic override and the size of the defect in the interventricular septum. <ref name="PMID19144126 "/>
| [[File:Some common effects for patients with Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Magnetic resonance imaging'''
|Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is evolving as the most important technique for evaluating the size and functioning of the right ventricle. An MRI machine uses a magnetic field to produce a detailed image of the scanned area of the body. It is especially useful in viewing soft tissues as it provides greater contrast than techniques such as x-ray. <ref>Squire LF, Novelline RA (1997). Squire's fundamentals of radiology (5th ed.). Harvard University Press</ref>
|MRI’s are important in assessing pulmonary valve competence and the severity of regurgitation (the amount of blood that flows back into the right ventricle due to the incomplete closure of the pulmonary valves) in patients with TOF. It can measure the volume and mass of the right and left ventricles and can assess the degree of pulmonary outflow tract obstruction. Finally, MRIs are important in measuring the degree of ventricular septal defect.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Magnetic Resonance Imaging in an adult patient with tof.JPG|200px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

==Treatment/Management==
The treatment for TOF consists of medical therapy, surgery & palliative procedures.

'''Medical therapy:'''

Medical therapy is usually used to prepare the infant/adult for surgery. The degree of therapy and what is used for treatment, depends upon the degree of cyanosis found in the patient.

*Patients with acute cyanosis usually carry out knee to chest exercise positions<ref name= "PMID19144126"/> in order to decrease the amount of deoxygenated blood entering circulation. This along with providing oxygen & intravenous morphine to provides more blood flow to the lungs and also decrease ventilator drive. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b3></ref>

*Patients with severe cyanosis are usually administered intravenous propranolol, which allows for decreases in the muscle spasms that occur in the infundibulum (which causes RVOTO). <ref name="PMID19683809"/>

*Asymptomatic patients do not require any particular medical treatment.

'''Palliative Procedures:'''
[[File:The Blalock Taussig Shunt.jpg|thumb|The Blalock Taussig Shunt]]
''The Blalock-Taussig Shunt:''

Total corrective surgery is the most advantageous option for young infants<ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. However, in some instances, infants suffering from pulmonary atresia or other anomalies (in addition to TOF) may require a palliative method instead<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156></ref> because the anomaly changes the candidate’s capability to having total corrective surgery. In some instances, infants with very small pulmonary arteries cannot tolerate corrective surgery and require palliation instead.
The main aim of palliative surgery is to increase pulmonary blood flow and allow for growth and possibly total correction of the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"><pubmed>19040408</pubmed></ref>.
By far, the most common procedure is the modified Blalock-Taussig Shut (B-T shunt). This shunt is placed between the pulmonary and subclavian arteries (on the same side)<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>. The original B-T shunt was placed by anastomosing a branch of the transected subclavian artery and the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>, but the classic B-T shunt had a disadvantage of thrombosis that occurred due to the small size of the vessel.

The major advantage of the modified Blalock-taussig shunt is that it<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"/>:
*Directs partially oxygenated blood from the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery (hence the lungs for oxygenation), therefore relieving cyanosis
*Allows for preservation of subclavian artery
*The shunt can be used on either side
*Allows for easier control and closure of the shunt at the time of complete repair.

Due to this feature, the shunt has an excellent success rate.

Complications of the B-T shunt are rare, but usually include<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.chdinfo.com/aa/aa112397.htm></ref>:
*Blockage of the shunt – causing the blue colour of the patient to return
*Infection – the ‘foreign’ shunt may become a site for bacteria to implant & cause infection.
*Distortion of the pulmonary artery arises as the child grows and the point at which the shunt is attached to the artery may not grow and which causes a kink in the artery to develop.
Other shunts such as the Potts, Waterston and Glenn shunts are either not used or infrequently used today (see table below for more details). <ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156</ref>
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Type of shunt'''
|'''Descriptions'''
|'''Reasons for it not being used'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Pott’s shunt'''
| This shunt is a connection that is established between the descending portion of the Aorta (on the left side of chest) to the left branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| The shunt has a tendency to increase the pulmonary blood flow, pulmonary hypertension, causes blood flow to be preferential to one of the lungs, the shunt causes kinking in the Pulmonary artery and it is also very hard to close when complete repair is undertaken. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
|[[File:Potts Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Waterston shunt'''
| This shunt was placed between the back of the Aorta, to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This shunt’s use is more suited to those with Pulmonary artery stenosis and also the procedure is quite difficult to perform. It causes excessive pulmonary blood flow and hypertension and congestive cardiac failure has been found in 20% of patients that have the Waterston or Pott's shunt <ref name="PMID4813185"><pubmed>4813185</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Waterston Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Glenn shunt'''
| The superior vena cava is anastomosed via a shunt to the right Pulmonary artery (the classic Glenn shunt). The modified Glenn shunt is where the superior vena cava is attached to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery, which is till connected to the main Pulmonary artery.<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This procedure is very complicated and difficult to perform, also complete repair becomes a laborious task. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
| [[File:Glenn Shunt.jpg|120px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

'''Surgery:'''

Today Tetralogy of fallot can only be treated with open-heart surgery, which is usually performed before 6 months of age<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>.

The goal of surgery is to be able to treat the four congenital abnormalities associated with TOF. It is also advantageous to perform this surgery at an early age and not wait until the child is older, however the specific timing of the operation is still under some controversy<ref name= "PMID21048055"/>.

[[File:Treatment of TOF surgery.png|300px|thumb|Surgical treatment of Tetralogy of Fallot]]

Surgeries occur under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and are performed either through the atrium (Transatrial) or from the right atrium/from the pulmonary artery (transatrial-transpulmonary) <ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. Surgical approaches are the most common in patients of all ages.

If a patient has had palliative procedures, these shunts must be isolated and taken down <ref name= "Medscape Reference - Corrective Surgery">< http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b6></ref>, before the actual operation can commence.
In the surgery itself, the surgeon:

* Widens the narrowed pulmonary blood vessels and the pulmonary valve itself, hence allowing for greater blood flow to the lungs.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>
* Repairs the ventricular septal defect using a patch to cover the hole in the septum.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>

Fixing these two defects also solves the other two defects (the hypertrophy of the right ventricle wall and provides oxygenated blood to the aorta). When the surgery is carried out during infancy, the incision heals in roughly 6 weeks.

More information regarding Treatment and Surgery can be found here:
|[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRnn1etH2tE&list=FL2TNt6Azyu0rD9Oqj3mYdEg&index=1 Tetralogy of Fallot Repair]|[http://www.youtube.com/user/ChildrensHospPhila#p/u/49/jgLC2QABcxo Treatment Options for Tetralogy of Fallot]

==Prognosis==

If a person has undetected TOF or has not undergone corrective surgery, then the usual outcome depends upon the severity of the Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction (RVOTO)

A person suffering from severe RVOTO
Has a 25% chance to die in the first year, 40% chance of dying within 3 years, 70% chance to die by the age of 10 and a 95% chance of death by the age of 40.<ref name="PMID20091166"/>
[[File:Major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients.png|thumb|300px|Pie Graph of major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients|]]
The major causes of death in surgically untreated patients are
*Hypoxia spells – 62%
* Cerebrovascular accidents – 17%
* Brain abscesses – 13% <ref name="PMID20091166"/>

If a patient undergoes elective surgery then the patient has a low mortality rate of just 2% (in & directly after surgery) and a long-term survival rate of 85-90%<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>. In the absence of other serious complications, patients are able to live normal lives, shown by the possibility to carry out a successful pregnancy.

Whilst this may be the case many patients go on to develop an insufficient pulmonary valve<ref name= "Future - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b9></ref> (where upon contraction of the right ventricle, blood flows backwards from the pulmonary arteries in to the right ventricle). This causes the right ventricle to work harder and hence become dilated.

This can lead to hindered function of the right ventricle and cause fatigue.

Another outcome of repair can be a narrowing at the outflow area/branch of pulmonary arteries<Ref name= "Living with Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/livingwith.html></ref>, which produces high pressure in the right ventricle and can lead to further corrective surgery being undertaken.

Finally, whilst corrective TOF surgery repairs the anomalies, it is crucial that long term follow up with a cardiologist be mandatory to detect any problems, whether they be recurring or new. Hence patients are advised to carry out physical examinations, echocardiography and other exams as the patient matures into a teenager and adult years.<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>

==Future Directions==

In the last decade, several innovations have been developed for possible treatment methods and also management of TOF, these include:

===='''Percutaneous Pulmonary valve replacement:'''====

This has been the most promising and exciting area for the past decade, with majority of focus going into conduit rehabilitation between the pulmonary artery and right ventricle. The replacement is designed for patients who have already had TOF elective surgery and are in need of pulmonary valve replacement. The percutaneous pulmonary valve is composed of a bovine internal jugular vein, with the native valve (bovine) fixed into a platinum stent it is moved along into the right ventricular outflow via fluoroscopic control. This control allows for the valve to be fixed precisely by inflation, using a balloon in balloon method [Christian Apitz, Gary D Webb, Andrew N Redington Tetralogy of Fallot. Lancet: 2009, 374(9699);1462-71 PMID:19683809]]<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. If the percutaneous pulmonary valve proves to have great success and long-term durability, it has the potential to allow for earlier intervention in such cases [David Fox, Ganesh P Devendra, Stephen A Hart, Richard A Krasuski When 'blue babies' grow up: What you need to know about tetralogy of Fallot. Cleve Clin J Med: 2010, 77(11);821-8 PMID:21048055]<ref name="PMID21048055"/> . So far no mortality or late mortality has been registered in the patients tested.

===='''Oral Drug Therapy'''====

Pharmacologic therapy could be used to alter the clinical outcomes that arise with pulmonary insufficiency, which may develop from tetralogy of fallot. Scientists and researchers are using MRI imaging technology to see the effect that Nitric Oxide may have upon pulmonary vasodilation and are amidst of trialling similar oral drugs for long-term use [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

===='''Genetic Mutation & therapy'''====

Recently, congenital heart patients went under large-scale mutation screenings and several important genes (islet 1, Mef2c etc) [Xu H, Baldini A (2007) Genetic pathways to mammalian heart development: recent progress from manipulation of the mouse genome. PMID: 17178242]<ref><pubmed>17178242</pubmed></ref>, which are involved in cardiogenesis, have been identified. Identification of these genes can possibly provide markers for diagnosis of cardiac anomalies such as TOF. Work is also being done for genetic manipulation to be used as a therapeutic tool.

===='''In vitro engineered valves'''====

Finally creation of in vitro tissue engineered valves using human endothelial cells (using allograft techniques) has been shown to have long term durability and also reduce valve degeneration, cusp thickening or pulmonary insufficiency (trivial to mild) [Clinical application of tissue engineered human heart valves using autologous progenitor cells. PMID: 16820562]<ref><pubmed>16820562</pubmed></ref>. Creation of such valves has great promise for the world of cardiac congenital diseases as it will allow greater options for valve replacement and allow for growth and remodelling as the child continues through somatic growth. [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

==Glossary==

[[#Introduction | '''Back to top''']]
'''Anastomosing''' - connection made surgically between adjacent blood vessels.

'''Annular hypoplasia''' – (need definition)

'''Anomalies''' - something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected.

'''Arrythmia''' - (dysrhythmia) Abnormal electrical activity of the heart resulting in either a fast, slow, or irregular heart beat.

'''Asymptomatic''' - producing or showing no symptoms.

'''Ascites''' – Excess fluid in the space between the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organs (the peritoneal cavity).

'''Cardiopulmonary bypass''' - Blood returning to the heart is diverted through a heart-lung machine (a pump-oxygenator) before returning it to the arterial circulation. The machine does the work both of the heart (pump blood) and the lungs (supply oxygen to red blood cells).

'''Clubbing''' – Changes in the areas under and around the toenails and fingernails, and in the nails themselves that may occur with some disorders

'''Congenital''' - a disease or physical abnormality present from birth.

'''Cyanosis''' - Clinical term referring to a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin. One cause of cyanosis is cyanotic heart disease.

'''Cyanotic heart disease''' - Clinical term referring to a congenital heart abnormality (defect) resulting in lack of oxygen that causes cyanosis (a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin).

'''Dyspnoea''' – Shortness of breath, difficult or laboured breathing

'''Edema/Oedema''' - Swelling caused by the accumulation of abnormally large amounts of fluid in the spaces between the body's cells or in the circulatory system.

'''Hepatomegaly''' – Swelling of the liver beyond its normal size.

'''Hypertension''' - A medical condition where the pressure within the systemic arteries is raised, causing the heart to work harder than normal.

'''Hypertrophy''' - Increase in size of an organ due to an increase in the size of its cells.

'''Infundibulum''' - a funnel-shaped cavity or structure.

'''Intravenous''' - existing or taking place, within veins.

'''Laborious''' - requiring considerable effort and time.

'''Morphine''' - an analgesic and narcotic drug obtained from opium and used medicinally to relieve pain.

'''Murmur''' – Blowing, whooshing, or rasping sounds heard during a heartbeat. The sound is caused by turbulent blood flow through the heart valves or near the heart.

'''Palliative care''' - Healthcare that focuses on preventing and relieving suffering.

'''Palpitation''' – Unusually or abnormally rapid or violent beating of the heart.

'''Pulmonary Atresia''' - a form of congenital heart disease in which the pulmonary valve does not form properly

'''Pulmonary valve insufficiency''' - A condition where the pulmonary valve is not strong enough to prevent the back flow on blood into the right ventricle.

'''Shunt''' – A channel through which blood or other bodily fluid is diverted from its normal path by surgical reconstruction or by a synthetic tube.

'''Stenosis''' - An abnormal narrowing, usually in relation to a tube. For example, blood vessel, gastrointestinal tract or respiratory tract narrowing.

'''Syncope''' – Brief loss of consciousness associated with transient cerebral anemia, as in heart block, sudden lowering of the blood pressure, etc.; fainting.

'''Systolic ejection murmur''' - A heart murmur heard during the contraction phase of the heart.

'''Tet spell''' - A hypoxic attack due to a lack of circulating oxygen. A tet spell is characterised by shortness of breath and brieff loss of consciousness.

'''Thrombosis''' - local coagulation or clotting of the blood in a part of the circulatory system.

'''ventilator drive''' -

==Internal links==

Cardiovascular development abnormalities
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/Notes/heart2.htm#Fallot

Advanced cardiac embryology
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Advanced_Cardiac_Embryology

Cardiovascular system development
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Cardiovascular_System_Development

Cardiovascular development lecture
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_21

==References==

<references/>

----

{{2011Projects}}

2011 Group Project 6

2011-10-12T08:38:41Z

Z3291423: /* Treatment/Management */

{{2011ProjectsMH}}

=Tetralogy of Fallot=

==Introduction==

[[File:Tetralogy_of_fallot_after_surgery.png‎| thumb | 300px | right | Baby with Tetralogy of Fallot- The morning after surgery]]

Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is a congenital heart disease affecting approximately 3 in 10000 people. It is the most common form of congenital heart disease, accounting for about 1 in 10 cases. <ref name="PMID1689816"><pubmed>1689816</pubmed></ref> TOF was named after Etienne-Louis Fallot for his description of the anatomy and physiology of the defects associated with the disease.<ref name="PMID:19683809
"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> TOF is believed to be caused by a genetic mutation of chromosomes 5,20 and 25, which impact the development of the neonatal heart. These genetic mutations contribute to the four characteristic defects of TOF:

* Pulmonary stenosis: a narrowing of the blood flow path from the right ventricle to the lungs.
* Overiding aorta: an aorta which is continuous with both ventricles instead of just the left one.
* Ventricular septal defect: the septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete
* Right ventricular hypertrophy: enlargement of the cells in the right ventricle. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed></pubmed>19144126</ref>

TOF patients are given the name 'blue babies' because they often have a slightly blue appearance due to the decreased circulating oxygen levels. Some common symptoms in TOF patients include turning blue while crying, collapsing due to ''tet spells'' during exercise, dizziness and fatigue.

Etienne Fallot, Helen Taussig and Alfred Blalock have significantly contributed to the understanding of the cardiac anomalies and treatment options associated with TOF. Currently, surgery is the most successful treatment option, however ''palliative care'' and medical treatment is also available. Due to technology advancements, doctors are able to detect TOF more accurately and treat patients quicker, allowing an increase in survival rate and a favourable long term prognosis.

Whilst the understanding of this disease has grown greatly, future treatment options are continuously being explored. These include developing durable and efficient surgical procedures, shunts and valves.

==History==

====Early History====
[[File:Dr Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Etienne Louis Arthur Fallot]]

In '''1671''', Niels Stenson was the first to anatomically describe Tetralogy of Fallot. However, the precise descriptions of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot were done in '''1784''' by William Hunter at St Georges Hospital Medical School in London. His description is as follows<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref> :

{| style="border: solid 3px #8eb2ec"
|- align="center" style="background:#C0C0C0"
|''“…the passage from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, which should have admitted a finger, was not so wide as a goose quill; and there was a hole in the partition of the two ventricles, large enough to pass the thumb from one to the other. The greatest part of the blood in the right ventricle was driven with that of the left ventricle into the aorta, or great artery, and so lost all the advantage which it ought to have had from breathing”''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|}

Hunter’s description of the defected heart’s anatomy along with its resulting physiology was further specified and advanced by Etienne-Louis Fallot. However it was Maude Abbott from Canada who coined the term ‘Tetralogy of Fallot’ in '''1924'''<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.

====Contemporary History====

In '''1938''' there was a dawn in surgical therapy for people with heart defects as Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent ductus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7.<ref name="PMID7888802"><pubmed>7888802</pubmed></ref> [[File:Dr Helen Brooke Taussig.jpg| thumb | 180px | right | Portrait of Dr. Helen Brooke Taussig]]

Later, it was the work of Helen Taussig with her using a fluoroscope which allowed her to determine that children suffering from cyanosis, especially those with TOF, had decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation and thus more blood was needed to enter into this circulation. She then put forward a concept that shows the benefits of an ‘artificial ductus’; as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells weeks after the baby was born<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

It was in the morning of '''1943''' in which Taussig explained to [http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/diglib/sc_diglib/biopages/ablalock.html Blalock] and [http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah/thomas-vivien-1910-1985 Thomas] that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods. It was only a year later in which this belief came into practice as a cyanotic congenital heart experienced the first successful treatment due to surgical means. This technique was conducted on another two cases with the same defect and thus due to such success from the surgeries, the concept had received worldwide success.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>

During the '''1950s''', the rise of open heart surgery began and the era of closed-heart surgery dominance had ceased. It was also during the '''1950s''' to '''1970s''' that surgeons realised the great variance in the anatomy of TOF, thus they had to work out new surgical techniques to accommodate this variation. Also during this period, there was an appreciation by surgeons that whilst conducting such operations in the heart, there needs to be precision in how they conduct their work anatomically. Thus in this 20 year period, there was a number of surgeons who had successfully conducted intracardiac surgeries to infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

During her late years of work Dr Taussig had hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in the infants. At the time the hypothesis received skepticism, however today studies show us that this idea is quite real <ref name="PMID7888802"/>.

====Surgical History====

The first procedures for Tetralogy of Fallot were being conducted from around the '''1950s'''. Due the advances in the areas of medicine which support and maintain surgeries, children born with Tetralogy of Fallot now have a great chance of survive to adulthood<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. In retrospective studies it shows how surgical procedures have improved. From the '''1950s''' till today, the mortality rate from surgery dropped from 50% to less than 2%<ref name="PMID21251297"><pubmed>21251297</pubmed></ref>.

It was in '''1945''' that Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’ and in '''1954''' that Varco and Lillehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing a open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>.

During the surgeries in the past the surgeons will place a shunt between the pulmonary artery and a systemic artery of a child with Tetralogy of Fallot as this will allow some improvement in the oxygenation of the infant’s blood. It will be later when the individual grows up that the shunt will be removed then the heart will be repaired. Now surgeons prefer to repair the heart in the initial operation to repair the infants heart<ref name="PMID21048055"><pubmed>21048055</pubmed></ref>.

====Timeline====

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Year'''
|'''Milestones'''
|-
|align="center"|'''1628'''
| William Harvey published his work ''De Motu Cordis'' which portrayed a groundbreaking understanding that the two criculatory systems, pulmonary and systemic, and independant of each other.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1671'''
| Stenson anatomically described Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1784'''
| William Hunter gave a precise description of the anatomy of Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID19683809"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1847'''
| Chevers acknowledged the absence of pulmonary valve in Tetralogy of Fallot hearts.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1850s'''
| Peacock was a pioneer in using a stethoscope to discover a cardiac murmur with a heart with pulmonary stenosis.<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Fallot destroyed the idea that cyanosis had always occured due to inability of the foramen ovale to close. Also, he was the one to use the term ''tetralogie'', and furthermore acknowledged that there was no therapeutic treatments for patients of TOF during his time<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1888'''
| Etienne-Louis Fallot specified and advanced the description of Tetralogy of Fallot’s heart anatomy and its resulting physiology<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1924'''
| Maude Abbott coined the term “Tetralogy of Fallot”<ref name="PMID19683809"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1930s'''
| Helen Taussig using fluoroscope determined that TOF patients suffer cyanosis because of decreased blood flow to the pulmonary circulation. She then proposed the benefits of an “artificial ductus” in TOF neonates, as she believed the closing of the patent ductus arteriosis lead to babies having cyanosis and cyanotic spells<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1936'''
| Abbot demonstrated the Chest X-ray, 3-lead electrocardiogram and circulatory and auscilatory diagrams that were produced from a Tetralogy of Fallot heart<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1938'''
| Gross and Hubbard closed off the patent dusctus arteriosus in a girl who was aged 7<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1943'''
| Taussig explained to Blalock and Thomas that she believed it would be possible to direct more blood into the pulmonary circulation by conducting surgical methods<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''1945'''
| Blalock and Taussig explained the ‘systemic artery-to-pulmonary artery shunt’<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950'''
| Beginning of the rise of open heart surgery<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|-
|align="center"|'''1954'''
| Varco and Lilehei repaired a TOF heart whilst doing an open-heart surgery<ref name="PMID21251297"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1950-70'''
| Realisation of variance in the anatomy of TOF. This became the period of success for intracardiac surgeries to infant<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|-
|align="center"|'''mid 1970s'''
| Advancements in Infant surgery, introduction of prostaglandin therapy and rise in electrocardiography signficantly affected the patients with Tetralogy of Fallot<ref name="PMID7888802"/>
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''1990s'''
| Dr Taussig hypothesised that congenital cardiac defects had arisen from the expression of genetic defects found in infants<ref name="PMID7888802"/>.
|}

==Epidemiology==

Tetralogy of Fallot is considered to be a rare genetic disorder. It makes up around 7%-10% of cardiac congenital defects. Moreover, epidemiological studies show that it occurs in 3 out of 10000 live births that are delivered. After the neonatal age, Tetralogy of Fallot is the most frequent cause of ''cyanotic heart disease''. Additionally, Tetralogy of Fallot slightly affects more males than females.<ref name="PMID20091166"><pubmed>20091166</pubmed></ref>

The incidence of TOF seems to occur sporadically, even though there is a 3% risk of reoccurrence in a sibling (without any other first degree relatives affected by TOF). However, Mothers who are 35 years and older have an increased risk that their offspring will have TOF, whilst on the other hand mothers who have 2 or more children have a decreased risk.

Below is a table which shows the incidence rates of TOF in different races[ref]:
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff" align="center"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Race'''
|'''Incidence of TOF malformation (per 10,000)'''
|-
|align="center"|''Whites''
|align="center"| 2.85
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Hispanics''
|align="center"| 2.31
|-
|align="center"|''Asians''
|align="center"| 2.83
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|''Blacks''
|align="center"| 3.81
|-
|align="center"|''Other''
|align="center"| 3.80
|}

In regards to genetics, one study showed that in 25% of the cases of TOF there is a microdeletion on Chromosome 22 which has the q11 region within it. Moreover, TOF is associated and frequently diagniosed along side Velocardiofacial syndrome and Di George Syndrome. Interestingly, another study showed that there is a rate of 25% in which patients with this 22q11 mutation eventually develop schizophrenia.

Tetralogy of Fallot is also associated with the chromosomal anomalies Trisomy 21, 18 and 13, and also associated with Alagille syndrome which has JAG1. The most frequently associated genetic anomalies with tetralogy of Fallot is Trisomy 21 and 22q11.2 deletion.Furthermore, mutations in the 5q35 section (which codes for NKX2.5) were found in 4% of TOF patients which are classified as non-syndromic TOF.

In respect to clinical features, 35% of patients with TOF have Ventricular and Atrial arrhythmias. A 30 year follow up period of patients with TOF have shown that 6% of them die due to sudden cardiac death.

TOF is treated with surgery (see Treatment section below). When this is conducted before the age of six months, there is a low mortality rate associated with it (i.e. 2%). After surgical intervention is conducted, there is an 85-90% survival rate. It is clearly possible that improvements in the surgical field has allowed the reduction in surgical mortality which was 50% in the late 1950’s to 2% with contemporary surgical methods. On the other hand, if a TOF patient decides not to correct their condition, there is a 10% chance they will survive till their age is in the 30s and a 3% chance they will survive till their forties or older. Before surgical interventions were possible, TOF patients usually died within the first few years after birth, and it was rather unusual to see a patient who had survived beyond 30 years of age.

In regards to survival statistics, after surgery is conducted to correct TOF there is a:
* 97% chance that the patient will live one year after the surgery
* 98% chance that the patient will survive 20 years after the surgery if they were alive 30 days post surgery
* 90% chance that the patient will survive 30 years post surgery if they were operated on whilst they were children

From epidemiological studies conducted in regards to mortality rates in respect to congenital heart disease in the US between 1979-2005, there was a 40% reduction in mortality that was linked to Tetralogy of Fallot. It is thought that this reduction in mortality was associated to the ‘earlier recognition and treatment of heart failure and arrythmia’ which allowed this change in mortality rates to occur.<ref><pubmed>19853711</pubmed></ref>

==Signs and Symptoms==

'''Cyanosis'''

Normally, red blood cells carry oxygen around the body that is nearly completely saturated with oxygen held by the haemoglobin. When blood loses its oxygen, the colour changes from bright red colour to a colour that is a mix of dark blue and red. This event is known as cyanosis. Cyanosis could occur in situations in which the lungs are compromised due to underlying reasons such as the lungs being infected with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia and exposure to air at high altitudes. In the case of TOF patients, one of the heart defects (i.e. ventricular septal defect, explained further below) allows cyanosis to occur as the blood oxygen concentration is decreased due to the mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the TOF heart’s ventricles<ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration">http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003215.htm</ref>.

The most important sign of TOF patients is cyanosis. This is when the lips, fingernails and skin of the patient turns a bluish colour<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/signs.html</ref>. Additionally during cyanosis, the mucous membranes of the TOF patient may turn blue. Therefore, the cases where dark-skinned individuals may experience cyanosis, the cyanotic event could be observed by change in colour in the nails and mucous membranes, which include lips, around the eyes and gums <ref name="Medline Plus - Skin Discoloration"/>. Cyanosis is considered to occur due to decreased amounts of oxygenated haemoglobin found within the blood when cyanosis occurs <ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK367/</ref>.

''''Tet Spells' and Fatigue'''

The word 'Tet spells' is derived from Tetralogy of Fallot, as it is an event experieced by individuals who suffer from TOF. Babies who have TOF can at times enter into these ‘tet spells’, in which there is a sudden drop in oxygen saturation of the blood, causing the baby to turn blue. These 'Tet spells' become apparent when the baby does certain activities such as crying<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An image portraying a 'Tet spell' in an infant can be found here: [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/18134.htm Cyanotic 'Tet spell']

In addition to experiencing 'Tet spells', the baby could pass out, become unresponsive to their parents calling or touch, develop fatigue and finally have ''dyspnoea''. Furthermore, children with TOF would develop fatigue quickly and possibly pass out, thus surgeons now repair TOF hearts during infancy and not at adult to prevent such events.<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>

'''Heart Murmur'''

Heart murmurs are sound waves which are clearly audible that come from the vascular system or from the heart which have a round range between 20-2000Hz. It is considered to be produced as a consequence of blood flow within the cardiovascular system which is that is turbulent<ref><pubmed>14979389</pubmed></ref>. In the case of Tetralogy of Fallot, a heart murmur is a common sign which occurs due to the defected heart’s abnormal blood flow through it. However it should be mentioned that heart murmur is not a hallmark for congenital heart defects as many hearts of healthy children also have murmurs<ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. An audio sample of a heart murmur that would be heard in a TOF patient is found in the link below. Also below is a link to the sound of a normal heart beat without murmur and without TOF.

''Normal Heart:'' [http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=1&CourseID=22 First and Second Heart Sounds - Normal & Unsplit - Waveform and Audio] -- ''TOF Heart:''[http://www.easyauscultation.com/cases-waveform.aspx?CourseCaseOrder=5&CourseID=29 Tetralogy of Fallot - Waveform and Audio]

The types of murmurs that can be present in the heart include <ref name="PMID21048055"/>:
:1. '''Pulmonary Insufficiency Murmur''' - which occurs briefly and low pitched in the diastolic phase of the heart beat. This murmur is often missed during a physical examination of the heart because it is heard to hear it and its duration is short
:2. '''Aortic Insufficency Murmur'''
:3. '''Right Ventricular Outflow Murmur''' – can also have a pansytolic (throughout the systole of the heart beat) murmur if there is a presence of ventricular septal defect found in the heart <ref name="PMID21048055"/>.

'''Abnormal Growth and Clubbing'''

Children with TOF do not grow at the rate of normal children as whilst breastfeeding in infancy, the babies would get tired quicker and during the growth of the infant, normal functionability of the heart and oxygen saturated blood is needed for proper growth <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/>. [[File:Finger-Clubbing.jpg |thumb| An example of finger clubbing|300px]]

TOF children may also have ''''clubbing''''. <ref name= "National Heart Lung and Blood Institute - Signs & Symptoms of TOF"/> This clubbing would be evident as there would be enlargenemt of the bone or the skin around the fingernails of the patient. <ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001567.htm</ref>

'''Cardiac and Visceral Problems'''

It should also be mentioned that ''pulmonary insufficiency'' symptoms developed from a TOF heart varies in the degree of pulmonary insufficiency found in that individual. Thus the symptoms that could be presented are of a wide range which could from decline in function to palpitations. Moreover, late symptoms could also develop from the insufficiency which includes right heart failure, exertional dyspnea, ''syncope'' and palpitations. In an event of which right ventricular failure occurs, signs to indicate it include elevated jugular venous pressure, ''ascites'', ''hepatomegaly'', jugular venous distension and peripheral edema.<ref name="PMID21048055"/>

==Genetics/Aetiology==

The genetic etiology of Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is still currently unknown and being researched. Even though this is the case, most of the studies done on the disorder have agreed that TOF normally occurs with other developmental disorders, like DiGeorge syndrome, and that the disorder may be caused by multiple mutations in a person’s genome. Here are some of the current suspected genetic mutations that leads to the congenital disease Tetralogy of Fallot.

===22q11.21===

* '''Gene profile'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/TBX1</ref>: [[File:TBX1.jpeg|thumb|TBX1|400px]]
**Gene affected = TBX1
**Chromosome number = 22
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 11.21
**Base pair region = 19,744,225 to 19,771,115

Studies have shown 74% of patients with 22q11.2 microdeletions have Congenital Heart Defect, and out of these 22% have Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF).<ref><pubmed>11339373</pubmed></ref>. This is why mutation in this region of the chromosome is an important consideration for the genetic aetiology of TOF.

This gene is responsible for the production of T-box 1 protein transcription factor.It is a dose sensitive protein, meaning the amount of protein produced by the gene is reduced once there is increased amount of the transcription factor. It contributes to the development of the outflow tract and right ventricle of the heart. This is by regulating the expression of the genes via the binding of the protein to specific area in the DNA.<ref><pubmed>20937753</pubmed></ref> Unfortunately the genes regulated by this protein are still not well known, even though its mechanism and function have already been determined.

The most common genetic mutation of this gene that results in TOF is a microdeletion of 3 or 1.5 Mb of 22q11.2 region on chromosome 22 <ref name="PMID19948535"><pubmed>19948535</pubmed></ref>. The result of this microdeletion is a haploinsufficient gene. This is where there is only a single copy of the gene in one allele, which clinically leads to an abnormal functioning of the protein because a single copy of the gene is incapable of producing enough protein that will allow normal function.<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/glossary=haploinsufficiency</ref>

Although microdeletion is the most common mutation in the TBX1 gene that results to TOF, there are other muattional variants that have been observed that resulted in non-syndromic TOF. This variant involves a heterozygous 30-bp duplication in exon 9c of the TBX1 gene of patients with TOF. This leads to the production of non-functioning TBX1 protein because the insertion of the duplicate leads to the expansion of the polyalanine tract. The proteins produced aggregates within the cytoplasm, leading to decrease in transcription of Tbx1 gene, since this gene is dose-dependent. Also the proteins produced are non-functioning, thus transcription of genes that the T-box 1 protein is responsible for is not initiated.<ref name="PMID19948535"/>

Mutation of the TBX1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*DiGeorge Syndrome
*Velocardiofacial Syndrome
*Conotruncal anomaly face syndrome

===5q34===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/NKX2-5</ref>:[[File:NKX2-5.jpeg|thumb|400px|NKX2-5]]
**Gene affected = NKX2-5
**Chromosome number = 5
**Chromosomal arm = q (long arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 34
**Base pair region = 172,659,106 to 172,662,314

Studies have shown that at least 4% of TOF patients have NKX2-5 mutation. Patients with this mutation are also found to be non-syndromic TOF patients. This is why the mutation in this gene is considered in the development of TOF.<ref name="PMID1714651"><pubmed>1714651</pubmed></ref>

It encodes the NK2 homeobox 5 transcription factor. NK2 homeobox 5 is essential in tissue differentiation and temporal and spatial patterns of development in cardiac tissue.<ref><pubmed>7665173</pubmed></ref>. This protein is particularly involved in the development of atrial, ventricular and conotruncal septation, AV conduction and AV valve formation<ref><pubmed>10587520</pubmed></ref>.

There are 3 known substitution mutation of the NKX2-5 gene in TOF patients resulting in right-sided aortic arch, mirror-image aortic arch branching, and a retroaortic innominate vein<ref name="PMID1714651"/>. This includes:
*glu-to-gln at codon 21 position
*arg-to cys at codon 216 position
*ala-to val at codon 219 position

Mutation of the NKX2-5 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Hypothyroidism
*Congenital nengoitrous
*Atrial septal defect with atrioventricular conduction defects

===20p12.1-p11.23===

*'''Gene profile:'''<ref>http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/JAG1</ref>:[[File:JAG1.jpeg|thumb|JAG1|400px]]
**Gene affected = JAG1
**Chromosome number = 20
**Chromosomal arm = p (short arm)
**Position on the chromosome = 12.1 to 11.23
**Base pair region = 10,618,331 to 10,654,693

The typical clinical presentation of mutation in this gene is a disease called Alagille Syndrome (AGS) that have some clinical overlap with that of TOF, which are mainly right heart abnormalities.<ref><pubmed>12427653</pubmed></ref> This makes mutation in this gene of special interest when it comes to TOF

The gene is composed of about 36 kb with 26 exons,<ref><pubmed>9268641</pubmed></ref> and expresses the gene expresses Jagged-1 protein, which is a ligand of the Notch receptor<ref name="PMID11869892"><pubmed>11869892</pubmed></ref>. JAG1 Gene is highly expressed in developing mammalian heart, thus Jagged-1 ligands are present on cardiac cell membranes<ref><pubmed>10556292</pubmed></ref>. With the Notch receptor present on adjacent cells, Jagged-1 protein is involved in intercellular signalling between adjacent cells. This is because ligand-receptor bond leads to the release of the receptor’s intracellular region from the membrane. This part is transported into the nucleus activating transcription factors that affects cellular function, leading to cell differentiation and morphogenesis.<ref name="PMID11869892"/>

There is a missesnse mutation of the JAG1 gene (G274D), which is gly-to-asp substitution. This may lead to the formation of cysteine residues that results in the formation of abnormal protein because its structure and stability has been compromised.<ref name="PMID11152664"><pubmed>11152664</pubmed></ref> There are 2 types of proteins resulting from the mutation of the allele with the abnormal functioning protein produced at higher temperature<ref><pubmed>12649809</pubmed></ref>:
*Abnormally glycosylated Jagged-1protein that was retained intracellularly and not transported to cell surface
*Normally glycosylated protein that retains its function as a ligand to NOTCH receptor, as it is transported to the cell surface
The result is the development of traits that are characteristic of TOF, including ventricular septal defect with aortic dextroposition and isolated pulmonic stenosis.<ref name="PMID11152664"/>

Mutation of the JAG1 gene may also lead to other phenotype, which includes:
*Alagille Syndrome
*Deafness
*Congenital heart defects
*Posterior embryotoxon

==Pathophysiology and Abnormalities==

{| border="0px"
|-
|The four pathological features of tetralogy of fallot are:

# Pulmonary stenosis
# Overriding aorta
# Ventricular septal defect
# Right ventricular hypertrophy

These features result from the disruption of the aortic and pulmonary outflow tracts. The severity of symptoms is determined by the extent of right ventricular outflow obstruction.<ref name="PMID19144126"/>

'''''Pulmonary stenosis''''' - Pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']] may be caused by a narrowing of the pulmonary valve (valvular stenosis) or the outflow tract of the right ventricle (infundibular stenosis). <ref name="PMID14132270"><pubmed>14132270</pubmed></ref> The narrowing of either the valve or the infundibulum obstructs the flow of blood from the right ventricle into the pulmonary circulation. Consequently, this results in a reduced flow of oxygenated blood in the systemic circulation. If the degree of pulmonary stenosis is mild, a left to right shunt forms. (The higher pressure in the left ventricle causes blood to pass through the septal defect into the right ventricle). However, if the pulmonary stenosis is significant, a right to left shunt will form. <ref name="PMID15934690 "><pubmed>15934690 </pubmed></ref> This occurs because the stenosis raises the pressure in the right ventricle and forces blood directly into the left ventricle. This is important because deoxygenated blood can now enter the systemic circulation and problems such as [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']], dizziness and fainting can occur. The pathophysiology of pulmonary stenosis usually worsens with age because the pulmonary orifice stays the same size despite an increase in the size of the heart. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Overriding aorta''''' - Instead of being positioned directly over the left ventricle, the aorta is displaced anterosuperiorly (in front of and above). The aortic valve is located directly above the interventricular septal defect allowing blood from both the left and right ventricles to pass through the aortic valve. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref> This biventricular connection allows both oxygenated (from left ventricle) and deoxygenated blood (from right ventricle) to enter the systemic circulation. The degree to which the overriding aorta is continuous with the right ventricle determines the severity of symptoms. <ref name="PMID11520451"><pubmed>11520451</pubmed></ref>

'''''Ventricular septal defect''''' - The interventricular septum dividing the left and right ventricles is incomplete at its superior, membranous end. <ref name="PMID19683809 "/> During ventricular contraction, blood from the left ventricle is forced into the right ventricle and then re-enters the pulmonary circulation. This extra volume of blood places pressure of the pulmonary system and compensatory pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''hypertension''']] and right ventricular [[#Glossary | '''hypertrophy''']] may occur. If the right ventricular pressure exceeds that of the left, the left to right shunt is reversed and the patient will experience [[#Glossary | '''cyanosis''']] because deoxygenated blood is bypassing the lungs and entering the systemic circulation. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA.</ref>

'''''Right ventricular hypertrophy''''' - [[#Glossary | '''Hypertrophy''']] of the right ventricle is a compensatory response to pulmonary [[#Glossary | '''stenosis''']]. Because the pulmonary outflow tract is narrowed, the right ventricle must pump harder to meet the oxygen demands of the body. <ref name="PMID3068155"><pubmed>3068155</pubmed></ref>

The diagram on the right shows the blood flow in a normal heart and the blood flow in a patient with Tetralogy of Fallot.
|[[File:Tetralogy of fallot-the 4 defects.jpg|220px|thumb|Tetralogy of fallot-the four defects]]
[[File:Normal fetal blood flow and Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg |360px|thumb| Fetal blood flow in a normal heart and in a Tetralogy of Fallot heart]]
|}

==Diagnostic Tests==

{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Diagnostic technique'''
|'''How the technique works'''
|'''Presentation in a TOF patient'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Physical examination'''
| TOF is often diagnosed during fetal life by echocardiography.<ref name="PMID19683809"><pubmed>19683809</pubmed></ref>
If TOF is not detected during fetal life, certain signs and symptoms at birth may alert the need for further investigation.
|Signs and symptoms include mild to moderate cyanosis, which worsens when the baby cries, difficulty feeding and difficulty gaining weight. However, TOF often goes undiagnosed until adult life. Most adult patients will appear normal, however, some may present with ''cyanosis'' and clubbing of the fingers. The jugular venous pressure is usually normally (raised jugular venous pressure often indicates right ventricular failure). If the aorta is pushed to the right (so it is continuous with both the left and right ventricle), a lift below the right sternoclavicular joint may be noted. <ref name="PMID8272784"><pubmed>8272784</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Clinical examination TOF.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Heart murmurs'''
|Heart murmurs are sounds caused by the turbulent flow of blood. They are heard using a stethoscope. They are often the result of problems including valvular stenosis (narrowing of valves), valvular regurgitation (leakage of valves due to incomplete closure) or defects in the heart wall allowing blood to flow in unusual directions. <ref>http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/heartmurmur/</ref>
|Examination of the heart of a patient with TOF may reveal a loud second heart sound (produced by the closure of the pulmonary valve). A harsh ''systolic ejection murmur'' may be heard and a palpable thrill may be felt along the left sternal border. <ref>Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology. 8th edn. Saunders/Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA </ref> These sounds occur because the pulmonary outflow tract is obstructed. Although this murmur is often present, sometimes it may be short or difficult to hear and is often missed on physical examination. A pansystolic (occurring throughout the whole of systole) murmur may also be heard. This type of murmur occurs due to the ventricular septal defect between the left and right ventricles. The increased pressure in the left ventricle forces blood back into the right ventricle, causing a murmur, which lasts the whole of systole (contraction phase). <ref name="PMID21048055
"/>
|[[File:Heart_murmur_TOF.png‎|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Electrocardiogram'''
|Once TOF is suspected, electrocardiogram and chest radiographs are performed. Electrocardiography is used to assess the electrical activity of the heart. The electrical activity is detected by electrodes, which are placed on the skin of the patient and recorded by an external device. <ref>Braunwald E. (Editor), Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Fifth Edition, p. 108, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co., 1997</ref>
|The electrocardiogram is extremely important in detecting a right bundle branch block (a block in the electrical conducting system of the heart), which is common in patients with TOF. An electrocardiogram will also reveal a heart that is deviated slightly to the right and an enlarged right ventricle due to the ventricular hypertrophy.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Doctor performing an ECG on patient.png|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Chest radiograph'''
|A chest radiograph (or chest x-ray) uses ionising radiation to develop an image of the patient’s chest. It is used to diagnose many conditions including conditions of the thorax and structures within the thoracic cavity including the heart, lungs and major blood vessels entering and leaving the heart. Chest radiographs are often used to screen for certain diseases but further tests are required for a definitive diagnosis.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003804.htm</ref>
|In a patient with TOF, a chest radiograph will demonstrate a prominent right ventricular shadow, giving the heart a boot-like appearance, which is typical of patients with TOF. The right ventricular hypertrophy causes the apex of the right ventricle to rise on top of the relatively unfilled left ventricle, giving the heart its boot-shaped appearance on examination. <ref name="PMID19144126"><pubmed>19144126</pubmed></ref> The radiograph will also show a right-sided aorta in approximately one-quarter of patients.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Chestxrayfallot.jpg|200px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Echocardiogram'''
|An echocardiogram (also called a cardiac ultrasound) is performed to confirm the above findings. Echocardiography uses ultrasound to produce two-dimensional (and now also three-dimensional) images of the heart. It assesses cardiac tissue, valve function, the velocity of blood flow and any abnormal communications within the heart.<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003869.htm</ref>
|The echocardiogram identifies important abnormalities of the heart including obstruction of the pulmonary outflow tract, the size of the pulmonary arteries, the degree of aortic override and the size of the defect in the interventricular septum. <ref name="PMID19144126 "/>
| [[File:Some common effects for patients with Tetralogy of Fallot.jpg|200px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Magnetic resonance imaging'''
|Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is evolving as the most important technique for evaluating the size and functioning of the right ventricle. An MRI machine uses a magnetic field to produce a detailed image of the scanned area of the body. It is especially useful in viewing soft tissues as it provides greater contrast than techniques such as x-ray. <ref>Squire LF, Novelline RA (1997). Squire's fundamentals of radiology (5th ed.). Harvard University Press</ref>
|MRI’s are important in assessing pulmonary valve competence and the severity of regurgitation (the amount of blood that flows back into the right ventricle due to the incomplete closure of the pulmonary valves) in patients with TOF. It can measure the volume and mass of the right and left ventricles and can assess the degree of pulmonary outflow tract obstruction. Finally, MRIs are important in measuring the degree of ventricular septal defect.<ref name="PMID8272784 "/>
|[[File:Magnetic Resonance Imaging in an adult patient with tof.JPG|200px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

==Treatment/Management==
The treatment for TOF consists of medical therapy, surgery & palliative procedures.

'''Medical therapy:'''

Medical therapy is usually used to prepare the infant/adult for surgery. The degree of therapy and what is used for treatment, depends upon the degree of cyanosis found in the patient.

*Patients with acute cyanosis usually carry out knee to chest exercise positions<ref name= "PMID19144126"/> in order to decrease the amount of deoxygenated blood entering circulation. This along with providing oxygen & intravenous morphine to provides more blood flow to the lungs and also decrease ventilator drive. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b3></ref>

*Patients with severe cyanosis are usually administered intravenous propranolol, which allows for decreases in the muscle spasms that occur in the infundibulum (which causes RVOTO). <ref name="PMID19683809"/>

*Asymptomatic patients do not require any particular medical treatment.

'''Palliative Procedures:'''
[[File:The Blalock Taussig Shunt.jpg|thumb|The Blalock Taussig Shunt]]
''The Blalock-Taussig Shunt:''

Total corrective surgery is the most advantageous option for young infants<ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. However, in some instances, infants suffering from pulmonary atresia or other anomalies (in addition to TOF) may require a palliative method instead<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156></ref> because the anomaly changes the candidate’s capability to having total corrective surgery. In some instances, infants with very small pulmonary arteries cannot tolerate corrective surgery and require palliation instead.
The main aim of palliative surgery is to increase pulmonary blood flow and allow for growth and possibly total correction of the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"><pubmed>19040408</pubmed></ref>.
By far, the most common procedure is the modified Blalock-Taussig Shut (B-T shunt). This shunt is placed between the pulmonary and subclavian arteries (on the same side)<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>. The original B-T shunt was placed by anastomosing a branch of the transected subclavian artery and the pulmonary artery<ref name= "PMID: 19040408"/>, but the classic B-T shunt had a disadvantage of thrombosis that occurred due to the small size of the vessel.

The major advantage of the modified Blalock-taussig shunt is that it<Ref name= "Medscape Reference - Palliative Procedures"/>:
*Directs partially oxygenated blood from the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery (hence the lungs for oxygenation), therefore relieving cyanosis
*Allows for preservation of subclavian artery
*The shunt can be used on either side
*Allows for easier control and closure of the shunt at the time of complete repair.

Due to this feature, the shunt has an excellent success rate.

Complications of the B-T shunt are rare, but usually include<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.chdinfo.com/aa/aa112397.htm></ref>:
*Blockage of the shunt – causing the blue colour of the patient to return
*Infection – the ‘foreign’ shunt may become a site for bacteria to implant & cause infection.
*Distortion of the pulmonary artery arises as the child grows and the point at which the shunt is attached to the artery may not grow and which causes a kink in the artery to develop.
Other shunts such as the Potts, Waterston and Glenn shunts are either not used or infrequently used today (see table below for more details). <ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#a1156</ref>
{| style="border: solid 1px #a0a0ff"
|- align="center" style="background:#8eb2ec"
|style="width:50px"|'''Type of shunt'''
|'''Descriptions'''
|'''Reasons for it not being used'''
|'''Image'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Pott’s shunt'''
| This shunt is a connection that is established between the descending portion of the Aorta (on the left side of chest) to the left branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| The shunt has a tendency to increase the pulmonary blood flow, pulmonary hypertension, causes blood flow to be preferential to one of the lungs, the shunt causes kinking in the Pulmonary artery and it is also very hard to close when complete repair is undertaken. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
|[[File:Potts Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|align="center"|'''Waterston shunt'''
| This shunt was placed between the back of the Aorta, to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery. <ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This shunt’s use is more suited to those with Pulmonary artery stenosis and also the procedure is quite difficult to perform. It causes excessive pulmonary blood flow and hypertension and congestive cardiac failure has been found in 20% of patients that have the Waterston or Pott's shunt <ref name="PMID4813185"><pubmed>4813185</pubmed></ref>
|[[File:Waterston Shunt.jpg|120px]]

|-
|align="center"|'''Glenn shunt'''
| The superior vena cava is anastomosed via a shunt to the right Pulmonary artery (the classic Glenn shunt). The modified Glenn shunt is where the superior vena cava is attached to the right branch of the Pulmonary artery, which is till connected to the main Pulmonary artery.<ref name= "Palliative Operations for Tetralogy of Fallot"/>
| This procedure is very complicated and difficult to perform, also complete repair becomes a laborious task. <ref name= "Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference"/>
| [[File:Glenn Shunt.jpg|120px]]
|- style="background:#eeeeff"
|}

'''Surgery:'''

Today Tetralogy of fallot can only be treated with open-heart surgery, which is usually performed before 6 months of age<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>.

The goal of surgery is to be able to treat the four congenital abnormalities associated with TOF. It is also advantageous to perform this surgery at an early age and not wait until the child is older, however the specific timing of the operation is still under some controversy<ref name= "PMID21048055"/>.

[[File:Treatment of TOF surgery.png|300px|thumb|Surgical treatment of Tetralogy of Fallot]]

Surgeries occur under cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and are performed either through the atrium (Transatrial) or from the right atrium/from the pulmonary artery (transatrial-transpulmonary) <ref name= "PMID20091166"/>. Surgical approaches are the most common in patients of all ages.

If a patient has had palliative procedures, these shunts must be isolated and taken down <ref name= "Medscape Reference - Corrective Surgery">< http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b6></ref>, before the actual operation can commence.
In the surgery itself, the surgeon:

* Widens the narrowed pulmonary blood vessels and the pulmonary valve itself, hence allowing for greater blood flow to the lungs.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>
* Repairs the ventricular septal defect using a patch to cover the hole in the septum.<ref name= "PMID19683809"/>

Fixing these two defects also solves the other two defects (the hypertrophy of the right ventricle wall and provides oxygenated blood to the aorta). When the surgery is carried out during infancy, the incision heals in roughly 6 weeks.

More information regarding Treatment and Surgery can be found here:
|[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lRnn1etH2tE&list=FL2TNt6Azyu0rD9Oqj3mYdEg&index=1 Tetralogy of Fallot Repair]|[http://www.youtube.com/user/ChildrensHospPhila#p/u/49/jgLC2QABcxo Treatment Options for Tetralogy of Fallot]

==Prognosis==

If a person has undetected TOF or has not undergone corrective surgery, then the usual outcome depends upon the severity of the Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Obstruction (RVOTO)

A person suffering from severe RVOTO
Has a 25% chance to die in the first year, 40% chance of dying within 3 years, 70% chance to die by the age of 10 and a 95% chance of death by the age of 40.<ref name="PMID20091166"/>
[[File:Major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients.png|thumb|300px|Pie Graph of major causes of death in surgically untreated TOF patients|]]
The major causes of death in surgically untreated patients are
*Hypoxia spells – 62%
* Cerebrovascular accidents – 17%
* Brain abscesses – 13% <ref name="PMID20091166"/>

If a patient undergoes elective surgery then the patient has a low mortality rate of just 2% (in & directly after surgery) and a long-term survival rate of 85-90%<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>. In the absence of other serious complications, patients are able to live normal lives, shown by the possibility to carry out a successful pregnancy.

Whilst this may be the case many patients go on to develop an insufficient pulmonary valve<ref name= "Future - Medscape Reference"><http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2035949-treatment#aw2aab6b6b9></ref> (where upon contraction of the right ventricle, blood flows backwards from the pulmonary arteries in to the right ventricle). This causes the right ventricle to work harder and hence become dilated.

This can lead to hindered function of the right ventricle and cause fatigue.

Another outcome of repair can be a narrowing at the outflow area/branch of pulmonary arteries<Ref name= "Living with Tetralogy of Fallot"><http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tof/livingwith.html></ref>, which produces high pressure in the right ventricle and can lead to further corrective surgery being undertaken.

Finally, whilst corrective TOF surgery repairs the anomalies, it is crucial that long term follow up with a cardiologist be mandatory to detect any problems, whether they be recurring or new. Hence patients are advised to carry out physical examinations, echocardiography and other exams as the patient matures into a teenager and adult years.<ref name= "PMID19144126"/>

==Future Directions==

In the last decade, several innovations have been developed for possible treatment methods and also management of TOF, these include:

'''Percutaneous Pulmonary valve replacement:'''

This has been the most promising and exciting area for the past decade, with majority of focus going into conduit rehabilitation between the pulmonary artery and right ventricle. The replacement is designed for patients who have already had TOF elective surgery and are in need of pulmonary valve replacement. The percutaneous pulmonary valve is composed of a bovine internal jugular vein, with the native valve (bovine) fixed into a platinum stent it is moved along into the right ventricular outflow via fluoroscopic control. This control allows for the valve to be fixed precisely by inflation, using a balloon in balloon method [Christian Apitz, Gary D Webb, Andrew N Redington Tetralogy of Fallot. Lancet: 2009, 374(9699);1462-71 PMID:19683809]]<ref name="PMID19683809"/>. If the percutaneous pulmonary valve proves to have great success and long-term durability, it has the potential to allow for earlier intervention in such cases [David Fox, Ganesh P Devendra, Stephen A Hart, Richard A Krasuski When 'blue babies' grow up: What you need to know about tetralogy of Fallot. Cleve Clin J Med: 2010, 77(11);821-8 PMID:21048055]<ref name="PMID21048055"/> . So far no mortality or late mortality has been registered in the patients tested.

'''Oral Drug Therapy'''

Pharmacologic therapy could be used to alter the clinical outcomes that arise with pulmonary insufficiency, which may develop from tetralogy of fallot. Scientists and researchers are using MRI imaging technology to see the effect that Nitric Oxide may have upon pulmonary vasodilation and are amidst of trialling similar oral drugs for long-term use [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

'''Genetic Mutation & therapy'''

Recently, congenital heart patients went under large-scale mutation screenings and several important genes (islet 1, Mef2c etc) [Xu H, Baldini A (2007) Genetic pathways to mammalian heart development: recent progress from manipulation of the mouse genome. PMID: 17178242]<ref><pubmed>17178242</pubmed></ref>, which are involved in cardiogenesis, have been identified. Identification of these genes can possibly provide markers for diagnosis of cardiac anomalies such as TOF. Work is also being done for genetic manipulation to be used as a therapeutic tool.

'''In vitro engineered valves'''

Finally creation of in vitro tissue engineered valves using human endothelial cells (using allograft techniques) has been shown to have long term durability and also reduce valve degeneration, cusp thickening or pulmonary insufficiency (trivial to mild) [Clinical application of tissue engineered human heart valves using autologous progenitor cells. PMID: 16820562]<ref><pubmed>16820562</pubmed></ref>. Creation of such valves has great promise for the world of cardiac congenital diseases as it will allow greater options for valve replacement and allow for growth and remodelling as the child continues through somatic growth. [Joanne P Starr Tetralogy of fallot: yesterday and today. World J Surg: 2010, 34(4);658-68 PMID:20091166]<ref name="PMID20091166"/>.

==Glossary==

[[#Introduction | '''Back to top''']]
'''Anastomosing''' - connection made surgically between adjacent blood vessels.

'''Annular hypoplasia''' – (need definition)

'''Anomalies''' - something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected.

'''Arrythmia''' - (dysrhythmia) Abnormal electrical activity of the heart resulting in either a fast, slow, or irregular heart beat.

'''Asymptomatic''' - producing or showing no symptoms.

'''Ascites''' – Excess fluid in the space between the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organs (the peritoneal cavity).

'''Cardiopulmonary bypass''' - Blood returning to the heart is diverted through a heart-lung machine (a pump-oxygenator) before returning it to the arterial circulation. The machine does the work both of the heart (pump blood) and the lungs (supply oxygen to red blood cells).

'''Clubbing''' – Changes in the areas under and around the toenails and fingernails, and in the nails themselves that may occur with some disorders

'''Congenital''' - a disease or physical abnormality present from birth.

'''Cyanosis''' - Clinical term referring to a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin. One cause of cyanosis is cyanotic heart disease.

'''Cyanotic heart disease''' - Clinical term referring to a congenital heart abnormality (defect) resulting in lack of oxygen that causes cyanosis (a blue coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin).

'''Dyspnoea''' – Shortness of breath, difficult or laboured breathing

'''Edema/Oedema''' - Swelling caused by the accumulation of abnormally large amounts of fluid in the spaces between the body's cells or in the circulatory system.

'''Hepatomegaly''' – Swelling of the liver beyond its normal size.

'''Hypertension''' - A medical condition where the pressure within the systemic arteries is raised, causing the heart to work harder than normal.

'''Hypertrophy''' - Increase in size of an organ due to an increase in the size of its cells.

'''Infundibulum''' - a funnel-shaped cavity or structure.

'''Intravenous''' - existing or taking place, within veins.

'''Laborious''' - requiring considerable effort and time.

'''Morphine''' - an analgesic and narcotic drug obtained from opium and used medicinally to relieve pain.

'''Murmur''' – Blowing, whooshing, or rasping sounds heard during a heartbeat. The sound is caused by turbulent blood flow through the heart valves or near the heart.

'''Palliative care''' - Healthcare that focuses on preventing and relieving suffering.

'''Palpitation''' – Unusually or abnormally rapid or violent beating of the heart.

'''Pulmonary Atresia''' - a form of congenital heart disease in which the pulmonary valve does not form properly

'''Pulmonary valve insufficiency''' - A condition where the pulmonary valve is not strong enough to prevent the back flow on blood into the right ventricle.

'''Shunt''' – A channel through which blood or other bodily fluid is diverted from its normal path by surgical reconstruction or by a synthetic tube.

'''Stenosis''' - An abnormal narrowing, usually in relation to a tube. For example, blood vessel, gastrointestinal tract or respiratory tract narrowing.

'''Syncope''' – Brief loss of consciousness associated with transient cerebral anemia, as in heart block, sudden lowering of the blood pressure, etc.; fainting.

'''Systolic ejection murmur''' - A heart murmur heard during the contraction phase of the heart.

'''Tet spell''' - A hypoxic attack due to a lack of circulating oxygen. A tet spell is characterised by shortness of breath and brieff loss of consciousness.

'''Thrombosis''' - local coagulation or clotting of the blood in a part of the circulatory system.

'''ventilator drive''' -

==Internal links==

Cardiovascular development abnormalities
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/Notes/heart2.htm#Fallot

Advanced cardiac embryology
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Advanced_Cardiac_Embryology

Cardiovascular system development
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Cardiovascular_System_Development

Cardiovascular development lecture
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_21

==References==

<references/>

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