Embryology - User contributions [en-gb]

Z3215682

2009-10-22T03:23:51Z

Z3215682:

Lab 1 Questions

1. What is the protein that the sperm binds to on the surface?

ZP3 protein

2. Name the 3 stages of follicle development in the ovary?

1-Primordial follicle 2-Preantral follicle 3-Antral follicle

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:10, 6 August 2009 (EST)

Lab 2 Questions

1. What factor do the synctiotrophoblast cells secrete to support the ongoing pregnancy?

hCG – Human Chorionic Gonadotropin

2. What does the corpus luteum secrete to prevent continuation of the menstrual cycle?

oestrogen and progesterone

3. What are the 2 main tissues to be derived from the germ cell layer continuous with the lining of the amniotic sac?

Epidermis epithelium
Nervous tissue

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:15, 13 August 2009 (EST)

Lab 3 Questions

1. What period of human development (in weeks) do the 23 Carnegie stages cover?

Week 8

2. What part of the somite will contribute to the vertebral column?

Cells differentiate to form sclerotome, which forms ventral column

3. At what Carnegie stage does the human neural tube normally completely close?

By stage 13 the neural tube is completely closed

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:08, 20 August 2009 (EST)

Lab 4 Questions

1. Into what structure do most blood vessels empty before they enter the embryonic heart?

Sinus Venosus

2. What do the dorsal aortas become in the adult?

descending aorta

3. What are the layers of cells found in a tertiary villi?

mesenchyme differentiates into blood vessels and cells, forms arteriocapillary network, fuse with placental vessels, developing in connecting stalk

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:13, 27 August 2009 (EST)

Lab 5 Questions

1. What was the question I said in the respiratory lecture would be part of this week's assessment?

Is the Congenital Disphramatic Hernia more common on one side or both?

2. What is the answer to the above question?

Yes it is more common for the hernia to happen on one side than the other resulting in the viscera entering the thorax and compressing the lung.

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:59, 3 September 2009 (EST)

1. Which is the more common clefting, cleft lip or cleft palate?

cleft lip

2. What structures does pharyngeal pouch 1 form?

Pharyngeal pouch 1 elongates to form tubotympanic recess, tympanic cavity, mastoid antrum, eustachian tube

3. Neural crest forms which cells within the skin

melanocytes (skin)

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:12, 17 September 2009 (EST)

1. Briefly; what is a myotube and how is it formed?

Myoblasts are single cells that differentiate to form myotube. The myotube is multiple nuclei all bound by a single membrane
a developing muscle cell or fiber with a centrally-located nucleus. Thus, the myotubes must have been formed from the fusion of numerous myoblasts

2. What changes would I expect to see in the muscle fibre types in my legs if I:

a) Suffered a spinal cord injury

Atrophy: Reduction of slow fibres (type I) and conversion to fast twitch fibres (type II)

b) Took up marathon running

Muscles would conversion from fast twitch(type II) to slow twitch fibres(type 1)

MARK 5/5 SP

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:11, 24 September 2009 (EST)

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:39, 1 October 2009 (EST)

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:02, 8 October 2009 (EST)

1. Identify and name 3 tissue types which contain adult (somatic) stem cells that were used/studied from the above 5 articles.

muscle,
bone marrow,
adipose tissue

2. Name 2 reprogramming strategies/methods used in generating human induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) from the above 5 articles.

Adipose – nonintergrating adenoviruses

Non-viral – episomal vectors/plasmids reprogramming strategies

3. Is the following statement TRUE or FALSE?
"Unlike the nuclear genome, the mitochondrial DNA in the embryo is derived almost exclusively from the egg; that is, it is of maternal origin

True

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 13:07, 15 October 2009 (EST)

--[[User:Z3215682|Carly Mooney]] 14:23, 22 October 2009 (EST)

2009-09-23T10:53:00Z

Z3215682: /* History of Drosophila Embryological Model Use */

=== FLY ===
==Drosophila Melanogaster==
[[File:Drosophila melanogaster 1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Drosophila ''melanogaster'']]
Drosophila melanogaster, the common fruit fly, plays a major role in embryological and genetic research. There are a number of factors which make drosophila a very useful tool for genetic research. These factors include their size, short lifespan, their short generation time, and high reproduction rate (females can lay upwards of 100 eggs a day). They are cost effective for schools and universities, allowing easy replication of studies for on going years, and large populations mean statistical analysis can be reliable, and easy to obtain. The complete genome was sequenced and published in 2000 by Adams et al.

The object of this page is to examine the embryological development of Drosophila. However, the embryological development of Drosophila is just the beginning, as this development occurs within the female parent fly before birthing. Post-natal development has two separate periods in which the embryo develops to become a fully grown adult fly. These periods are the larval stage, and the pupal stage. In these stages the embryo goes through a metamorphosis changing its external appearance, and growing appendages such as wings, legs, and antennae, becoming a fully functional adult fly.

The time line of Drosophila development will be discussed, as will the stages of development, as adapted from the Bowne's stages by Campos-Ortega and Hartenstein . The genetics of the fly will be examined, as will the history of the use of Drosophila as an embryological model. The future direction of the use of Drosophila as an embryological model will also be looked at.

==Timeline of Drosophila Development==
===Development of the foregut===

Stage 9 – a layer of basophilic cells cylindrical in shape forms from the primordium of the stomodeum.

Stage 10- cells invaginate. Cells undergo mitotic division. The oesophagus and distal pharynx is derived from these cells.

Stage 13- stomodeum continues to develop caudally

Stage 13- 15 – promixal pharynx floor and pharyngeal arch becomes incorporated into the foregut.

Stage 14-17- median tooth, mouth hooks and maxillary cirri develops

===Development of midgut===

Stage 7- endodermal part of anterior midgut primordium invaginates ventrally.

Stage 9- second mitotic division occurs for all cells in the midgut primordium.

Stage 10- cells of anterior midgut attaches to stomodeum.

Stage 15- 16- midgut constrictions appear.

Stage 16-17- proventriculus arises from stomodeal cells.

Stage 17- the gastric valve is formed.

===Development of the hindgut===

Stage 8- first mitotic division occurs in the hindgut primordium.

Stage 10- the first phase of germ band extension is completed. Distinctive regions of the hindgut can be seen. A transversal depression forms the Malpighian tubules.

Stage 12- the hindgut changes its shape due to germ band shortening. The hindgut is brought to the caudal end and is quickly bent.

===Development of somatic and visceral musculature===

Stage 8- germ band extension commences. Cells inside the mesodermal tube undergoes first postblastodermal mitosis.

Stage 9- mesodermal cells becomes cuboidal in shape and forms a monostratified epithelium. These cells lies along the germ band in the ectoderm. The germ band at this stage consists of consistent bulges.

Stage 10- cells in the mesoderm undergoes third postblastodermal mitosis. Affects all the cells within the germ layer.

Stage 12- germ band shortening happens. Cells in the splanchnopleura and cells from the somatopleura separates from each other. Cells in splanchopleura and somtopleura adjusts themselves into an epithelium of tightly packed slim cells. These cells then comes into contact with the anterior and posterior midgut. Visceral musculature is developed from splanchopleura cells.

Stage 13- 15 – single somatic mesodermal cells fuses to form syncytial cells. Formation of muscle occurs due to this process.

Stage 16- final pattern of somatic musculature is developed.

==Stages of Drosophila Development==
The stages listed below are adapted from Bownes stages (1975) by Ortega and Hartenstein (1985), as there were some dissimilarities and inconsistencies observed in Bownes stages. The following times given for the stages are an average recorded room temperature (25°C).

{| border='1px'
|+ Table 1: Stages of Drosophila development
!Stage !!Time since fertilisation (hours)!!Stage Characteristic !!Embryo characteristic !!Image (Click image for more information)
|-
|1
|0.00-0.25
|First two syncytial divisions occur.
|Embryo dark in center, lighter at periphery, due to distribution of yolk granules
|[[file: Drosophila stage 1.jpg|200px]]
|-
|2
|0.25-1.50
|Syncytial divisions 3-8, separation of egg cytoplasm from envelope
|Two empty spaces appear at either pole
|[[file: Drosophila stage 2.jpg|200px]]
|-
|3
|1.50-1.20
|Syncytial division 9, polar buds formed in posterior space
|Clear cytoplasmic ring around periphery of embryo
|[[file: Stage 3 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|4
|1.20-2.10
|Syncytial division 10-13. Polar buds increase in number
|Appearance of somatic buds in periphery of embryo due to location of blastoderm nuclei
|[[file: Drosophila stage 4.jpg|200px]]
|-
|5
|2.10-2.50
|Cellularisation begins, anterior space disappears
|Pole cells move dorsally, blastoderm nuclei elongate
|[[file: Drosophila stage 5.jpg|200px]]
|-
|6
|2.5-3.00
|Onset of gastrulation, ventral and cephalic furrows form
|Pole cells shift dorsally. Blastoderm cells shift position forming dorsal plate
|[[file: Stage 6 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|7
|3.00-3.10
|Completion of gastrulation
|Three dorsal folds become visible as a result of endoderm invagination. Pole cells no longer visible on surface
|[[file: Stage 7 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|8
|3.10-3.40
|Germ band expansion
|Formation of amnioproctodeal invagination
|[[file: Stage 8 drosophila .gif|200px]]
|-
|9
|3.40-4.20
|Stomodeal cell plate formation, continuation of germ band expansion
|Clear layering of germ band due to delamination of neuroblasts. Anterior pole separates from vitelline envelope
|[[file: Stage 9 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|10
|4.20-5.20
|Germ band expansion ceases
|Invagination of stomodeum, parasegmental grooves appear
|[[file: Stage 10 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|11
|5.20-7.20
|Apoptosis begins. Germ band retraction initiates
|Segmental furrows become apparent. Tracheal pits and malphigian tubules form
|[[file: Stgae 11 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|12
|7.20-9.20
|Germband retraction
|Anterior, posterior midgut fuse. Yolk sac moved dorsally. Tracheal tubes fuse together. Ventral cord separates form epidermis
|[[file: Stage 12 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|13
|9.20-10.20
|Germ band retraction completes. Head involution begins.
|Yolk sac protrudes dorsally, labium moves to midline on ventral side
|[[file: Stage 13 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|14
|10.20-11.20
|Head involution continues
|Dorsum, and midgut begin closing. Dorsal spiracles become evident
|[[file: Stage 14 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|15
|12.20-13.00
|Epidermal segmentation completed. Head involution continues
|Epidermis and gut close completely
|[[file: Stage 15 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|16
|13.00-16.00
|Intersegmental groves visible at mid-dorsal levels
|Four gastric caecae evaginate from midgut
|
|-
|17
|16.00 until hatching
|Air infiltrates tracheal tree. Movement of embryo visible within viteline envelope
|Ventral cord continues retraction
|[[file: Stage 17 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|}

==History of Drosophila Embryological Model Use==

*Ectomologist Charles W. Woodworth was the first to breed the Drosophila at Harvard university and suggested to W.E. Castle they could be used in studies of genetics.
[[File:Thomas Hunt Morgan.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Thomas Hunt Morgan]]

*In 1908 T.H Morgan, an American geneticist and embryologist, was looking for an inexpensive that could be breed quickly and in limited space and Castle suggested the drosophila. Through Morgan’s studies of heredity he discovered the white-eyed mutation in the drosophila.

*By 1910, at Columbia University T.H Morgan and his students work on the top floor of the Schermerhorn Hall and t became known as the fly room. Students of the Fly Room were A.H. Sturtevant, C.B Bridges and H.J. Muller.

*In 1913 Sturtevant published a paper with the first genetic map and clearly laid out the logic for genetic mapping.

*In 1927 Muller ionized radiation and found it caused genetic damage.

*1930’s feasability of generating deficiences and duplications were exploited in 1970 to generate duplicates and initiating whole-genome scanning.

*In 1933 Morgan won the Nobel Prize for his discovery that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of hereditary.

*Also in 1933 Heitz and Bauer fly Bibio hortulanus studies discovered salivary gland chromosomes.

*1934 saw the 1st published drawings of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes by T.S painter.

*In 1935 and 1938 Bridges publish polytene maps that are still used today.

*In 1946 Muller received the Nobel prize for his work, showing mutation induced by x-rays.

*In 1972 D.S. Hogness of Stanford Universtiy put in a grant application for modern genome reseach and in 1974 he made the 1st random clone of any organism.

*In 1975, clone libraries representing the entire genome had been generated and screened for clones carrying specific sequences.

*In 1980 C. Nusseiln-Volhard and E. Wieschaus attempt to identify all genes involved fundamental processes leading to the discovery of major signalling pathways. In 1995 they shared a Nobel Prize for their work.

*In 1981 a breakthrough of first rescue of a mutant phenotype in an animal by gene transfer. This led to the use of enhancer traps to screen for genes based on pattern of expression.

*In 1987, enhancer traps were developed, making it possible to screen for genes based on their pattern of expression

*In 1990, Milicki, J et al introduced a mouse gene into a Drosophila embryo, establishing that, in animals that have been evolving independently for hundreds of millions of years, genes will generate products that function interchangeably.

*In 1992, was the first year the Drosophila embryos could be frozen for future use.

*In 2000 the Drosophila melanogaster genome was published by Adams MD, et al.

==Genetics of Drosophila==
[[File:White_drosophila_chromosome.jpg|thumb|right|The comparison of the four ''melanogaster'' chromosomes. Note the size of the 4th chromosome.]]
[[File:Drosophila_chromosomes.png|right|thumb|The difference in orientation of the female (left) and male (right) chromosomes.]]
The Drosophila melanogaster genome was fully sequenced in the year 2000. It genomic size is relatively small as it is a simple organism with few complex genes needed to be expressed. The simplicity of its genome allows researchers to pinpoint exact gene locations and discrepancies with relative ease. This ability gives it an advantage in not only reproducing quickly and making fewer mistakes, but also allowing us to trial new gene expressions in its genome.

The size of the Drosophila genome is about 165 million pairs and estimated to contain about 14000 genes. In comparison, humans have 3.4 billion base pairs with about 22500 gene sequences and yeast has about 5800 genes in 13.5 million base pairs.

The Drosophila melanogaster fly has four pairs of chromosomes: the X/Y sex cells and the autosomes 2, 3 and 4. The fourth chromosome is so small that it is usually overlooked. The comparison of the insignificant 4th chromosome to the other three pairs are shown in the image to the right. Also, according to research done by T.H.Morgan et al. in his book ''The Genetics of Drosophila'' the Y sex chromosome has '''no''' factors that affect the influence of recessive factors carried by the X chromosomes. In other words, the Y chromosomes has no effect on the sex of the Drosophila fly, and it is unaccounted for in gene expression.

As you can see in the blue image to the right, the Y sex chromosome is bent almost in half. This bending restricts the effect the chromosome has on gene expression and thus the /y chromosome is usually ignored.

Although there are many varieties of the Drosophila fly, only the melanogaster has been studied in-depth and studied here.

==Current Embryology Research on Drosophila==
===Drosophila and Parkinson's disease===
Experiments conducted by Cox et. al. have located a gene in Drosophila, called the clueless gene (clu), which encodes a protein that is related to proteins in humans. It has been found that clu mutations affects the clustering of mitochondria within the cell. These mutations resemble the mutations scene in human cells of sufferers with Parkinson's disease. This discovery provides a basis for the further analysis of similar genes in humans.

===The evolution of visual systems===
Erclik et. al. have identified similarities in the neuronal cell types of the visual systems of vertebrates and Drosophila. This identification provides a basis for the study of the evolution of complex visual systems, as the origin of such a system is more easily traced back down the evolutionary tree. This could potentially provide a basis for the future treatments of genetic damage or physical traumas to the eye, as retinas could potentially be grown from derivatives of Drosophila visual neuronal cells.

===Alzheimer's model of disease from Drosophila===
One of the underlying factors that induce the onset of Alzheimer's in humans is the excess production of proaggregatory peptides. A secretion signal peptide has been identified by Crowther et. al. in Drosophila that controls the synthesis of this peptide. The identification of such a gene means that researchers can manipulate different pathological pathways to observe the phenotypes produced. This means that the progression of the disease in Drosophila can help us to understand the progression of the disease in human patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease.

===The use of Drosophila as a model for the development of human traits===
There are a number of genes that are shared between Drosophila and humans. The phenotypes of variations in a variety of genes of Drosophila are easily observed, and as a result of the closeness of some genes, it is relatively easy to observe the effect of a variety of factors on the expression of some genes. Mackay et. al. are examining how genetic mechanisms affect the expression of some genes in humans producing defined phenotypic traits.

==Helpful links==
http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/ This site is a database for anything Drosophila related. It contains an exceptional image and movie catalogue which can be very helpful.

http://www.sdbonline.org/fly/aimain/1aahome.htm The Interactive Fly has a lot of information of the embryogenesis, pupal development and larval devlopment of Drosophila

==References==
1. Campos-Ortega, Hartenstein (1985) ''The Embryonic Development of'' Drosophila melanogaster. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. pp9-84

2. Weigmann K, Klapper R, Strasser T, Rickert C, Technau G, Jäckle H, Janning W, and Klämbt C: ''FlyMove – a new way to look at development of Drosophila''.Trends Genet. In press. http://flymove.uni-muenster.de

3. Sturtevant AH (1913), ''The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in ''Drosophila'', as shown by their mode of association.'' Journal of Experimental Zoology, 14: 43-59.

4. Rubin GM, Lewis EB (2000) ''A brief history of Drosophila's contributions to genome research.'' Science, 287 (5461); 2216-2218 PMID 10731135

5. Ashburner M, Bergman CM (2005) Drosophila melanogaster: ''A case study of a model genomic sequence and its consequences.'' Genome Research, 15(12); 1661-1667 PMID 16339363

6. Morgan TH, Bridges CB, Sturtevant AH (1919), ''The Genetics of Drosophila'' Gaarland Publications, New York.

7. Cox RT, Spradling AC. (2009) ''Clueless, a conserved Drosophila gene required for mitochondrial subcellular localization, interacts genetically with parkin'' Disease Models and Mechanisms, 2(9-10); 490-499 PMID 19638420

8. Erclik T, Hartenstein V, McInnes RR, Lipshitz HD (2009) ''Eye evolution at high resolution: the neuron as a unit of homology.'' Developmental Biology, 332(1); 70-79 PMID 19467226

9. Crowther DC, Page R, Chandraratna D, Lomas DA (2006) ''A Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease.'' Methods in Enzymology, 412; 243-255 PMID 17046662

10. Mackay TFC, Annholt RRH (2006) ''Of Flies and Man: ''Drosophila ''as a Model for Human Complex Traits'' Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 7;339-367 PMID 16756480

11. Adams MD, et al. (2000). ''The genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaste''. Science, 287(5461): 2185–95. PMID 10731132

{{Template:Projects09}}
[[Category:Fly]]

2009 Group Project 2

2009-09-23T10:33:01Z

Z3215682: /* History of Drosophila Embryological Model Use */

=== FLY ===
==Drosophila Melanogaster==
[[File:Drosophila melanogaster 1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Drosophila ''melanogaster'']]
Drosophila melanogaster, the common fruit fly, plays a major role in embryological and genetic research. There are a number of factors which make drosophila a very useful tool for genetic research. These factors include their size, short lifespan, their short generation time, and high reproduction rate (females can lay upwards of 100 eggs a day). They are cost effective for schools and universities, allowing easy replication of studies for on going years, and large populations mean statistical analysis can be reliable, and easy to obtain. The complete genome was sequenced and published in 2000 by Adams et al.

The object of this page is to examine the embryological development of Drosophila. However, the embryological development of Drosophila is just the beginning, as this development occurs within the female parent fly before birthing. Post-natal development has two separate periods in which the embryo develops to become a fully grown adult fly. These periods are the larval stage, and the pupal stage. In these stages the embryo goes through a metamorphosis changing its external appearance, and growing appendages such as wings, legs, and antennae, becoming a fully functional adult fly.

The time line of Drosophila development will be discussed, as will the stages of development, as adapted from the Bowne's stages by Campos-Ortega and Hartenstein . The genetics of the fly will be examined, as will the history of the use of Drosophila as an embryological model. The future direction of the use of Drosophila as an embryological model will also be looked at.

==Timeline of Drosophila Development==
===Development of the foregut===

Stage 9 – a layer of basophilic cells cylindrical in shape forms from the primordium of the stomodeum.

Stage 10- cells invaginate. Cells undergo mitotic division. The oesophagus and distal pharynx is derived from these cells.

Stage 13- stomodeum continues to develop caudally

Stage 13- 15 – promixal pharynx floor and pharyngeal arch becomes incorporated into the foregut.

Stage 14-17- median tooth, mouth hooks and maxillary cirri develops

===Development of midgut===

Stage 7- endodermal part of anterior midgut primordium invaginates ventrally.

Stage 9- second mitotic division occurs for all cells in the midgut primordium.

Stage 10- cells of anterior midgut attaches to stomodeum.

Stage 15- 16- midgut constrictions appear.

Stage 16-17- proventriculus arises from stomodeal cells.

Stage 17- the gastric valve is formed.

===Development of the hindgut===

Stage 8- first mitotic division occurs in the hindgut primordium.

Stage 10- the first phase of germ band extension is completed. Distinctive regions of the hindgut can be seen. A transversal depression forms the Malpighian tubules.

Stage 12- the hindgut changes its shape due to germ band shortening. The hindgut is brought to the caudal end and is quickly bent.

===Development of somatic and visceral musculature===

Stage 8- germ band extension commences. Cells inside the mesodermal tube undergoes first postblastodermal mitosis.

Stage 9- mesodermal cells becomes cuboidal in shape and forms a monostratified epithelium. These cells lies along the germ band in the ectoderm. The germ band at this stage consists of consistent bulges.

Stage 10- cells in the mesoderm undergoes third postblastodermal mitosis. Affects all the cells within the germ layer.

Stage 12- germ band shortening happens. Cells in the splanchnopleura and cells from the somatopleura separates from each other. Cells in splanchopleura and somtopleura adjusts themselves into an epithelium of tightly packed slim cells. These cells then comes into contact with the anterior and posterior midgut. Visceral musculature is developed from splanchopleura cells.

Stage 13- 15 – single somatic mesodermal cells fuses to form syncytial cells. Formation of muscle occurs due to this process.

Stage 16- final pattern of somatic musculature is developed.

==Stages of Drosophila Development==
The stages listed below are adapted from Bownes stages (1975) by Ortega and Hartenstein (1985), as there were some dissimilarities and inconsistencies observed in Bownes stages. The following times given for the stages are an average recorded room temperature (25°C).

{| border='1px'
|+ Table 1: Stages of Drosophila development
!Stage !!Time since fertilisation (hours)!!Stage Characteristic !!Embryo characteristic !!Image (Click image for more information)
|-
|1
|0.00-0.25
|First two syncytial divisions occur.
|Embryo dark in center, lighter at periphery, due to distribution of yolk granules
|[[file: Drosophila stage 1.jpg|200px]]
|-
|2
|0.25-1.50
|Syncytial divisions 3-8, separation of egg cytoplasm from envelope
|Two empty spaces appear at either pole
|[[file: Drosophila stage 2.jpg|200px]]
|-
|3
|1.50-1.20
|Syncytial division 9, polar buds formed in posterior space
|Clear cytoplasmic ring around periphery of embryo
|[[file: Stage 3 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|4
|1.20-2.10
|Syncytial division 10-13. Polar buds increase in number
|Appearance of somatic buds in periphery of embryo due to location of blastoderm nuclei
|[[file: Drosophila stage 4.jpg|200px]]
|-
|5
|2.10-2.50
|Cellularisation begins, anterior space disappears
|Pole cells move dorsally, blastoderm nuclei elongate
|[[file: Drosophila stage 5.jpg|200px]]
|-
|6
|2.5-3.00
|Onset of gastrulation, ventral and cephalic furrows form
|Pole cells shift dorsally. Blastoderm cells shift position forming dorsal plate
|[[file: Stage 6 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|7
|3.00-3.10
|Completion of gastrulation
|Three dorsal folds become visible as a result of endoderm invagination. Pole cells no longer visible on surface
|[[file: Stage 7 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|8
|3.10-3.40
|Germ band expansion
|Formation of amnioproctodeal invagination
|[[file: Stage 8 drosophila .gif|200px]]
|-
|9
|3.40-4.20
|Stomodeal cell plate formation, continuation of germ band expansion
|Clear layering of germ band due to delamination of neuroblasts. Anterior pole separates from vitelline envelope
|[[file: Stage 9 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|10
|4.20-5.20
|Germ band expansion ceases
|Invagination of stomodeum, parasegmental grooves appear
|[[file: Stage 10 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|11
|5.20-7.20
|Apoptosis begins. Germ band retraction initiates
|Segmental furrows become apparent. Tracheal pits and malphigian tubules form
|[[file: Stgae 11 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|12
|7.20-9.20
|Germband retraction
|Anterior, posterior midgut fuse. Yolk sac moved dorsally. Tracheal tubes fuse together. Ventral cord separates form epidermis
|[[file: Stage 12 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|13
|9.20-10.20
|Germ band retraction completes. Head involution begins.
|Yolk sac protrudes dorsally, labium moves to midline on ventral side
|[[file: Stage 13 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|14
|10.20-11.20
|Head involution continues
|Dorsum, and midgut begin closing. Dorsal spiracles become evident
|[[file: Stage 14 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|15
|12.20-13.00
|Epidermal segmentation completed. Head involution continues
|Epidermis and gut close completely
|[[file: Stage 15 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|16
|13.00-16.00
|Intersegmental groves visible at mid-dorsal levels
|Four gastric caecae evaginate from midgut
|
|-
|17
|16.00 until hatching
|Air infiltrates tracheal tree. Movement of embryo visible within viteline envelope
|Ventral cord continues retraction
|[[file: Stage 17 drosophila.jpg|200px]]
|-
|}

==History of Drosophila Embryological Model Use==

*Ectomologist Charles W. Woodworth was the first to breed the Drosophila at Harvard university and suggested to W.E. Castle they could be used in studies of genetics.
[[File:Thomas Hunt Morgan.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Thomas Hunt Morgan]]

*In 1908 T.H Morgan, an American geneticist and embryologist, was looking for an inexpensive that could be breed quickly and in limited space and Castle suggested the drosophila. Through Morgan’s studies of heredity he discovered the white-eyed mutation in the drosophila.

*By 1910, at Columbia University T.H Morgan and his students work on the top floor of the Schermerhorn Hall and t became known as the fly room. Students of the Fly Room were A.H. Sturtevant, C.B Bridges and H.J. Muller.

*In 1913 Sturtevant published a paper with the first genetic map and clearly laid out the logic for genetic mapping.

*In 1927 Muller ionized radiation and found it caused genetic damage.

*1930’s feasability of generating deficiences and duplications were exploited in 1970 to generate duplicates and initiating whole-genome scanning.

*In 1933 Morgan won the Nobel Prize for his discovery that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of hereditary.

*Also in 1933 Heitz and Bauer fly Bibio hortulanus studies discovered salivary gland chromosomes.

*1934 saw the 1st published drawings of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes by T.S painter.

*In 1935 and 1938 Bridges publish polytene maps that are still used today.

*In 1946 Muller received the Nobel prize for his work, showing mutation induced by x-rays.

*In 1972 D.S. Hogness of Stanford Universtiy put in a grant application for modern genome reseach and in 1974 he made the 1st random clone of any organism.

*In 1975, clone libraries representing the entire genome had been generated and screened for clones carrying specific sequences.

*In 1980 C. Nusseiln-Volhard and E. Wieschaus attempt to identify all genes involved fundamental processes leading to the discovery of major signalling pathways. In 1995 they shared a Nobel Prize for their work.

*In 1981 a breakthrough of first rescue of a mutant phenotype in an animal by gene transfer. This led to the use of enhancer traps to screen for genes based on pattern of expression.

*In 1987, enhancer traps were developed, making it possible to screen for genes based on their pattern of expression

*In 2000 the Drosophila melanogaster genome was published by Adams MD, et al.

==Genetics of Drosophila==
[[File:White_drosophila_chromosome.jpg|thumb|right|The comparison of the four ''melanogaster'' chromosomes. Note the size of the 4th chromosome.]]
[[File:Drosophila_chromosomes.png|right|thumb|The difference in orientation of the female (left) and male (right) chromosomes.]]
The Drosophila melanogaster genome was fully sequenced in the year 2000. It genomic size is relatively small as it is a simple organism with few complex genes needed to be expressed. The simplicity of its genome allows researchers to pinpoint exact gene locations and discrepancies with relative ease. This ability gives it an advantage in not only reproducing quickly and making fewer mistakes, but also allowing us to trial new gene expressions in its genome.

The size of the Drosophila genome is about 165 million pairs and estimated to contain about 14000 genes. In comparison, humans have 3.4 billion base pairs with about 22500 gene sequences and yeast has about 5800 genes in 13.5 million base pairs.

The Drosophila melanogaster fly has four pairs of chromosomes: the X/Y sex cells and the autosomes 2, 3 and 4. The fourth chromosome is so small that it is usually overlooked. The comparison of the insignificant 4th chromosome to the other three pairs are shown in the image to the right. Also, according to research done by T.H.Morgan et al. in his book ''The Genetics of Drosophila'' the Y sex chromosome has '''no''' factors that affect the influence of recessive factors carried by the X chromosomes. In other words, the Y chromosomes has no effect on the sex of the Drosophila fly, and it is unaccounted for in gene expression.

As you can see in the blue image to the right, the Y sex chromosome is bent almost in half. This bending restricts the effect the chromosome has on gene expression and thus the /y chromosome is usually ignored.

Although there are many varieties of the Drosophila fly, only the melanogaster has been studied in-depth and studied here.

==Current Embryology Research on Drosophila==
===Drosophila and Parkinson's disease===
Experiments conducted by Cox et. al. have located a gene in Drosophila, called the clueless gene (clu), which encodes a protein that is related to proteins in humans. It has been found that clu mutations affects the clustering of mitochondria within the cell. These mutations resemble the mutations scene in human cells of sufferers with Parkinson's disease. This discovery provides a basis for the further analysis of similar genes in humans.

===The evolution of visual systems===
Erclik et. al. have identified similarities in the neuronal cell types of the visual systems of vertebrates and Drosophila. This identification provides a basis for the study of the evolution of complex visual systems, as the origin of such a system is more easily traced back down the evolutionary tree. This could potentially provide a basis for the future treatments of genetic damage or physical traumas to the eye, as retinas could potentially be grown from derivatives of Drosophila visual neuronal cells.

===Alzheimer's model of disease from Drosophila===
One of the underlying factors that induce the onset of Alzheimer's in humans is the excess production of proaggregatory peptides. A secretion signal peptide has been identified by Crowther et. al. in Drosophila that controls the synthesis of this peptide. The identification of such a gene means that researchers can manipulate different pathological pathways to observe the phenotypes produced. This means that the progression of the disease in Drosophila can help us to understand the progression of the disease in human patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease.

===The use of Drosophila as a model for the development of human traits===
There are a number of genes that are shared between Drosophila and humans. The phenotypes of variations in a variety of genes of Drosophila are easily observed, and as a result of the closeness of some genes, it is relatively easy to observe the effect of a variety of factors on the expression of some genes. Mackay et. al. are examining how genetic mechanisms affect the expression of some genes in humans producing defined phenotypic traits.

==Helpful links==
http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/ This site is a database for anything Drosophila related. It contains an exceptional image and movie catalogue which can be very helpful.

http://www.sdbonline.org/fly/aimain/1aahome.htm The Interactive Fly has a lot of information of the embryogenesis, pupal development and larval devlopment of Drosophila

==References==
1. Campos-Ortega, Hartenstein (1985) ''The Embryonic Development of'' Drosophila melanogaster. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. pp9-84

2. Weigmann K, Klapper R, Strasser T, Rickert C, Technau G, Jäckle H, Janning W, and Klämbt C: ''FlyMove – a new way to look at development of Drosophila''.Trends Genet. In press. http://flymove.uni-muenster.de

3. Sturtevant AH (1913), ''The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in ''Drosophila'', as shown by their mode of association.'' Journal of Experimental Zoology, 14: 43-59.

4. Rubin GM, Lewis EB (2000) ''A brief history of Drosophila's contributions to genome research.'' Science, 287 (5461); 2216-2218 PMID 10731135

5. Ashburner M, Bergman CM (2005) Drosophila melanogaster: ''A case study of a model genomic sequence and its consequences.'' Genome Research, 15(12); 1661-1667 PMID 16339363

6. Morgan TH, Bridges CB, Sturtevant AH (1919), ''The Genetics of Drosophila'' Gaarland Publications, New York.

7. Cox RT, Spradling AC. (2009) ''Clueless, a conserved Drosophila gene required for mitochondrial subcellular localization, interacts genetically with parkin'' Disease Models and Mechanisms, 2(9-10); 490-499 PMID 19638420

8. Erclik T, Hartenstein V, McInnes RR, Lipshitz HD (2009) ''Eye evolution at high resolution: the neuron as a unit of homology.'' Developmental Biology, 332(1); 70-79 PMID 19467226

9. Crowther DC, Page R, Chandraratna D, Lomas DA (2006) ''A Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease.'' Methods in Enzymology, 412; 243-255 PMID 17046662

10. Mackay TFC, Annholt RRH (2006) ''Of Flies and Man: ''Drosophila ''as a Model for Human Complex Traits'' Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 7;339-367 PMID 16756480

11. Adams MD, et al. (2000). ''The genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaste''. Science, 287(5461): 2185–95. PMID 10731132

{{Template:Projects09}}
[[Category:Fly]]

2009-09-03T04:32:15Z

Z3215682:

=== FLY ===
==Drosophila Melanogaster==

==Timeline of Drosophila Development==

==Stages of Drosophila Development==
The stages listed below are adapted from Bownes stages (1975) by Ortega and Hartenstein (1985), as there were some dissimilarities and inconsistencies observed in Bownes stages. The following times given for the stages are an average recorded room temperature (25°C).

{| border='1px'
|+ Table 1: Stages of Drosophila development
!Stage !!Time since fertilisation (hours)!!Stage Characteristic !!embryo characteristic
|-
|1
|0.00-0.25
|First two syncytial divisions occur.
|Embryo dark in center, lighter at periphery, due to distribution of yolk granules
|-
|2
|0.25-1.50
|Syncytial divisions 3-8, separation of egg cytoplasm from envelope
|Two empty spaces appear at either pole
|-
|3
|1.50-1.20
|Syncytial division 9, polar buds formed in posterior space
|Clear cytoplasmic ring around periphery of embryo
|-
|4
|1.20-2.10
|Syncytial division 10-13. Polar buds increase in number
|Appearance of somatic buds in periphery of embryo due to location of blastoderm nuclei
|-
|5
|2.10-2.50
|Cellularisation begins, anterior space disappears
|Pole cells move dorsally, blastoderm nuclei elongate
|-
|6
|2.5-3.00
|Onset of gastrulation, ventral and cephalic furrows form
|Pole cells shift dorsally. Blastoderm cells shift position forming dorsal plate
|-
|7
|3.00-3.10
|Completion of gastrulation
|Three dorsal folds become visible as a result of endoderm invagination. Pole cells no longer visible on surface
|-
|8
|3.10-3.40
|Germ band expansion
|Formation of amnioproctodeal invagination
|-
|9
|3.40-4.20
|Stomodeal cell plate formation, continuation of germ band expansion
|Clear layering of germ band due to delamination of neuroblasts. Anterior pole separates from vitelline envelope
|-
|10
|4.20-5.20
|Germ band expansion ceases
|Invagination of stomodeum, parasegmental grooves appear
|-
|11
|5.20-7.20
|Apoptosis begins. Germ band retraction initiates
|Segmental furrows become apparent. Tracheal pits and malphigian tubules form
|-
|12
|7.20-9.20
|Germband retraction
|Anterior, posterior midgut fuse. Yolk sac moved dorsally. Tracheal tubes fuse together. Ventral cord separates form epidermis
|-
|13
|9.20-10.20
|Germ band retraction completes. Head involution begins.
|Yolk sac protrudes dorsally, labium moves to midline on ventral side
|-
|14
|10.20-11.20
|Head involution continues
|Dorsum, and midgut begin closing. Dorsal spiracles become evident
|-
|15
|12.20-13.00
|Epidermal segmentation completed. Head involution continues
|Epidermis and gut close completely
|-
|16
|13.00-16.00
|Intersegmental groves visible at mid-dorsal levels
|Four gastric caecae evaginate from midgut
|-
|17
|16.00 until hatching
|Air infiltrates tracheal tree. Movement of embryo visible within viteline envelope
|Ventral cord continues retraction
|-
|}
==History of Drosophila Embryological Model Use==

*Ectomologist Charles W. Woodworth was the first to breed the Drosophila at Harvard university and suggested to W.E. Castle they could be used in studies of genetics.

*In 1908 T.H Morgan, an American geneticist and embryologist, was looking for an inexpensive that could be breed quickly and in limited space and Castle suggested the drosophila. Through Morgan’s studies of heredity he discovered the white-eyed mutation in the drosophila.

*By 1910, at Columbia University T.H Morgan and his students work on the top floor of the Schermerhorn Hall and t became known as the fly room. Students of the Fly Room were A.H. Sturtevant, C.B Bridges and H.J. Muller.

*In 1913 Sturtevant published a paper with the first genetic map and clearly laid out the logic for genetic mapping.

*In 1927 Muller ionized radiation and found it caused genetic damage.

*1930’s feasability of generating deficiences and duplications were exploited in 1970 to generate duplicates and initiating whole-genome scanning.

*In 1933 Morgan won the Nobel Prize for his discovery that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of hereditary.

*Also in 1933 Heitz and Bauer fly Bibio hortulanus studies discovered salivary gland chromosomes.

*1934 saw the 1st published drawings of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes by T.S painter.

*In 1935 and 1938 Bridges publish polytene maps that are still used today.

*In 1946 Muller received the Nobel prize for his work, showing mutation induced by x-rays.

*In 1972 D.S. Hogness of Stanford Universtiy put in a grant application for modern genome reseach and in 1974 he made the 1st random clone of any organism.

*In 1975, clone libraries representing the entire genome had been generated and screened for clones carrying specific sequences.

*In 1980 C. Nusseiln-Volhard and E. Wieschaus attempt to identify all genes involved fundamental processes leading to the discovery of major signalling pathways. In 1995 they shared a Nobel Prize for their work.

*In 1981 a breakthrough of first rescue of a mutant phenotype in an animal by gene transfer. This led to the use of enhancer traps to screen for genes based on pattern of expression.

*In 2000 the Drosophila melanogaster genome was published.

==Genetics of Drosophila==

The Drosophila melanogaster fly has four pairs of chromosomes: the X/Y sex cells and the autosomes 2, 3 and 4. The fourth chromosome is so small that it is usually overlooked. The comparison of the insignificant 4th chromosome to the other three pairs are shown in the image to the right.

The size of the Drosophila genome is about 165 million pairs and estimated to contain about 14000 genes. In comparison, humans have 3.4 billion base pairs with about 22500 gene sequences and yeast has about 5800 genes in 13.5 million base pairs.

Also a good link to a variety of info: http://ceolas.org/VL/fly/index.html

==Current Embryology Research on Drosophila==

==Links==

==References==
1. Campos-Ortega, Hartenstein (1985) ''The Embryonic Development of'' Drosophila melanogaster. Springer-Verlag berlin Heidelberg. pp9-84

2. Katrin Weigmann, Robert Klapper, Thomas Strasser, Christof Rickert, Gerd Technau, Herbert Jäckle, Wilfried Janning and Christian Klämbt: ''FlyMove – a new way to look at development of Drosophila''.Trends Genet. In press. http://flymove.uni-muenster.de

3. Sturtevant, A. H. 1913. ''The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association.'' Journal of Experimental Zoology, 14: 43-59.

4. A brief history of Drosophila's contributions to genome research.
Rubin GM, Lewis EB.
Science. 2000 Mar 24;287(5461):2216-8.
PMID: 10731135

5. Drosophila melanogaster: A case study of a model genomic sequence and its consequences,
1. Michael Ashburner2 and
2. Casey M. Bergman1
PMID: 16339363

{{Template:Projects09}}