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UNSW Embryology

Week 1

© Dr Mark Hill (2011)

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Cell division by mitosis generates the approximately 1014 cells in the adult and also replaces cells lost every day. Mitosis is also crucial to development in the early cell division of the blastocyst and later in regulated proliferation of specific cell types.

The early embryo cell cycle (blastocyst stage) differs from adult and even fetal cell division in that it consists of alternating M Phase and S Phase of the cell cycle without any intervening growth phases (G1 and G2). This allows rapid proliferation, but without intervening growth it is also continually reducing the cytoplasic volume of progeny cells. Therefore it cannot continue indefinitely.

Also while much is known about the external growth factor regulation of cell division in adult tissues, very little is known about the eqivalent regulation in the embryo.

The other form of cell division, meiosis occurs only during the formation of the sex gametes.

Zygote with 2 pronuclei
Dr S. J. DiMarzo

Mitosis Overview

The following is a brief text extract from a lecture on Cell Division. As it is only the text bullet points out of context it may be hard to follow. There are several full versions of this lecture available online from UNSW Cell Biology website: Medicine- Society and Health , Science- Cell Biology

Text References

Cell Lifespan

Cell Lifespan

  • Neutrophil: 6-7 hours circulating, 4 days in tissue
  • Red blood cell: 120 days
  • Brain neuron, heart: 50 - 100 years

    Lifespan Processes

  • Birth: Mitosis, Except germ cells meiosis
  • Death: Apoptosis (Programmed cell death), Necrosis
  • Movie: Embryo Mitosis Movie: Cell Death (Apoptosis)

    Cell Cycle

  • Mitosis (M phase): Cell birth(division), small time of cell cycle
  • Interphase: Most cell life, Cell growth, function, DNA synthesis, organelle development

    Cell Cycle

  • Time cell comes into existence until that cell divides again
  • Rapidly growing human cells 20-24 hr
  • Liver cells 1-2 year
  • Neurons 1 only: Quiescent G0

    Cell Cycle- Stages

  • Rapidly dividing cell every 20-24hr
  • Mitosis: M 1 hr
  • Interphase: G1 Phase, cellular growth 9hr, Most variable time, Can exit to G0, S Phase, DNA duplication 9hr, G2 Phase, prepare for mitosis 4 hr

    Cell Cycle Differences

  • Early embryonic cycle
  • no growth occurs
  • each daughter cell is half the size of parent cell
  • cycle time is very short
  • S phases and M phases alternate without any intervening G1 or G2 phases

    Cell Cycle Regulation

  • Cell proliferation: strictly regulated
  • Cancer: Unregulated/abnormal proliferation

    Cell Cycle- External Regulators

  • External factors: can also regulate progression through cycle
  • Cell replacement in different tissues: regulated by polypeptide growth factors, factor can be specific for specific cell types

    Growth Factor Model

  • Fibroblasts in culture: Serum- Proliferation (Prepared by clotting), Plasma- no proliferation (Prepared by centrifugation, no clotting)
  • Clotting: allows platelets to release secretory granules, Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), Connective tissue cells express PDGF receptors which bind the small PDGF glycoprotein

    Other Growth Factors

  • Interleukin-2 (IL-2)
  • Stimulates T lymphocytes
  • Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), Promotes neuronal survival and growth
  • Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
  • Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)
  • Insulin-like growth factors (IFG-1, IGF-2)

    Cell Cycle- Internal Regulators

  • Cyclins: Cyclically synthesized and degraded each cell cycle
  • Cyclin-dependent Kinases: Inactive until bound to a specific cyclin

    Cyclin-Dependent Kinases

  • Drive M to S Phase
  • cdk1 and cdk2
  • Cdk1 activated at G2 to M
  • Cdk2 activated at G1 to S

    Cell Division Features

  • 2 mechanical processes
  • Mitosis: segregation of chromosomes and formation of 2 nuclei
  • Cytokinesis: splitting of the cell as a whole into 2 daughter cells

    Cell Changes

  • Nucleus: Chromosome condensation, Nuclear envelope breakdown
  • Cytoplasm: Cytoskeleton reorganization, Spindle formation (MT), Contractile ring (MF), Organelle redistribution

    Mitosis Phases

  • Based on: light microscopy of living cells, light and electron microscopy of fixed and stained cells
  • 5 Phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
  • Cytokinesis: 6th stage overlaps the end of mitosis

    Movies: Cell Division Animation, Cell Cycle Overview

    Mitosis- Interphase

  • Not a mitotic phase
  • Chromosomes dispersed in nucleus
  • Gene expression
  • Cytoskeleton and cell organelles
  • Distributed and functioning
  • Mitochondria: undergo independent proliferation/division

    Mitosis- Prophase

  • Chromosome DNA has been earlier duplicated (S Phase)
  • Chromosomes begin condensing
  • Chromosome pairs (chromatids) held together at centromere
  • Microtubules disassemble
  • Mitotic spindle begins to form
  • At end of prophase nuclear envelope breaks down

    Mitosis- Prometaphase

  • Microtubules now enter nuclear region
  • Nuclear envelope forms vesicles around mitotic spindle
  • Kinetochores: form on centromere, attach to some MTs of spindle
  • At end of prometaphase chromosomes move to metaphase plate

    Movie: Embryo Mitosis, Movie: Astral Microtubules, Microtubule Organisation, Mitotic Spindle , Kinetochore, Kinetochore Movement, Movie: Mitotic Spindle- Kinetochore, Mitosis- Metaphase

  • Kinetochore MTs align chromosomes in one midpoint plane
  • Metaphase ends when sister kinetochores separate

    Mitosis- Anaphase

  • Separation of sister Kinetochores
  • shortening of Kinetochore microtubules pulls chromosome to spindle pole
  • Anaphase ends as nuclear envelope (membrane) begins to reform

    Mitosis- Telophase

  • Chromosomes arrive at spindle poles
  • Kinetochore MTs lost
  • Condensed chromosomes begin expanding
  • Continues through cytokinesis

    Mitosis- Cytokinesis

  • Division of cytoplasmic contents
  • Contractile ring: forms at midpoint under membrane, Microfilament ring, Contracts forming cleavage furrow, Eventually fully divides cytoplasm

    Cell Cycle Arrest Points

    Abnormal Growth - Cancer

  • "Transformed cells": Cells escape normal cell cycle regulation, continue to grow under conditions where "normal" cells will not (confluent monolayer)
  • Study of these cells identified genes and proteins that regulate cell cycle: Oncogenes and Protooncogenes

    Cancer Proteins

  • Oncogenes: Mutated genes that are responsible for developing cancer
  • Protooncogene: Non-mutated normal cellular gene
  • Note cancers appear to develop as a series of independent gene mutations
  • Block- tumour suppressor genes

    Oncogenes/Protooncogenes

  • Treat cells with mutagen (UV light)
  • Damages DNA
  • Grow and identify transformed cells
  • Analyse DNA
  • Transfer DNA fragments to normal cells and see whether they transform recipients
  • Analyse tumour viruses
  • Many viruses stimulate tumourgenic growth
  • RNA tumour viruses "retroviruses"

    Tumour Suppressor Genes

  • "anti-oncogenes": Repress cell growth and division, Mutation loss of these genes leads to transformation
  • Retinoblastoma gene (Rb): Regulates gene transcription
  • P53: Senses DNA damage

    • References

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    Mueller PR, et al.           

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