Glial cells have many different roles in neural development, though they are typically described as "supportive", and have the same early embryonic origins as neurons.
Types of glia: radial glia, astroglia, oligodendroglia, microglia and Schwann cells.
Development the neural crest and sensory systems (hearing/vision/smell) are only briefly introduced in these notes and are covered in detail in another notes sections. (More? Neural Crest Notes | Senses Notes)
Page Links: Introduction | Some Recent Findings | Radial Glia | Astroglia | Oligodendroglia | Microglia | Schwann cells | Development Overview | Human Neuralation - Early Stages | Late Neural Development | Postnatal Neural | References | Glossary | Terms
Neural Stem Cell Differentiation Goetz AK, Scheffler B, Chen HX, Wang S, Suslov O, Xiang H, Brustle O, Roper SN, Steindler DA. Temporally restricted substrate interactions direct fate and specification of neural precursors derived from embryonic stem cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Jul 10; PNAS Link | Stem Cell Notes
"Upon evaluating distinct growth-permissive substrates in an embryonic stem cell–neurogenesis assay, we found that laminin, fibronectin, and gelatin instruct neural fate and alter the functional specification of neurons when applied at distinct stages of development."
Radial glia were first identifired in the human fetal brain using classical Golgi silver impregnation histology.
Radial glia generate initially neurons then astrocytes after neurogenesis has been completed.
Rakic P. Elusive radial glial cells: historical and evolutionary perspective. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):19-32. Review.
Kriegstein AR, Gotz M. Radial glia diversity: a matter of cell fate. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):37-43. Review.
Nadarajah B. Radial glia and somal translocation of radial neurons in the developing cerebral cortex. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):33-6. Review.
Steindler DA, Laywell ED. Astrocytes as stem cells: nomenclature, phenotype, and translation. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):62-9. Review.
Scemes E, Giaume C. Astrocyte calcium waves: what they are and what they do. Glia. 2006 Nov 15;54(7):716-25. Review.
Baron W, Colognato H, ffrench-Constant C. Integrin-growth factor interactions as regulators of oligodendroglial development and function. Glia. 2005 Mar;49(4):467-79. Review.
Bessis A, Bechade C, Bernard D, Roumier A. Microglial control of neuronal death and synaptic properties. Glia. 2007 Feb;55(3):233-8. Review.
GFAP is an intermediate filament protein expressed in glial cells.
Absence of GFAP has subtle effects on development.
Over-expression of GFAPcan be lethal.
Coding mutations of GFAP cause Alexander disease.
The stages below refer to specific Carneigie stages of development.
(Text modified from: Neurulation in the normal human embryo. O'Rahilly R, Muller F Ciba Found Symp 1994;181:70-82)
Three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging and image-processing algorithms have been used to quantitate between 29-41 weeks volumes of: total brain, cerebral gray matter, unmyelinated white matter, myelinated, and cerebrospinal fluid (grey matter- mainly neuronal cell bodies; white matter- mainly neural processes and glia). A study of 78 premature and mature newborns showed that total brain tissue volume increased linearly over this period at a rate of 22 ml/week. Total grey matter also showed a linear increase in relative intracranial volume of approximately 1.4% or 15 ml/week. The rapid increase in total grey matter is mainly due to a fourfold increase in cortical grey matter. Quantification of extracerebral and intraventricular CSF was found to change only minimally. (text modified from Huppi etal., (1998) Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of brain development in premature and mature newborns.Ann Neurol 43(2):224-235.) (More? Late Neural Development)
Neural development continues after birth with substantial growth, death and reorganization occuring during the postnatally. (More? Postnatal Development - Neural) The references below give a sample of some recent findings and research methods.
Cortex Matures Faster in Youth with Highest IQ (More? NIH - Cortex Matures Faster in Youth with Highest IQ)
Stern CD. Neural induction: old problem, new findings, yet more questions. Development. 2005 May;132(9):2007-21. Review. "During neural induction, the embryonic neural plate is specified and set aside from other parts of the ectoderm. A popular molecular explanation is the 'default model' of neural induction, which proposes that ectodermal cells give rise to neural plate if they receive no signals at all, while BMP activity directs them to become epidermis. However, neural induction now appears to be more complex than once thought, and can no longer be fully explained by the default model alone. This review summarizes neural induction events in different species and highlights some unanswered questions about this important developmental process."
Snook L, Paulson LA, Roy D, Phillips L, Beaulieu C. Diffusion tensor imaging of neurodevelopment in children and young adults. Neuroimage. 2005 Jul 15;26(4):1164-73. "Diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) was used to study regional changes in the brain's development from childhood (8-12 years, mean 11.1 +/- 1.3, N = 32) to young adulthood (21-27 years, mean 24.4 +/- 1.8, N = 28). ..... These findings suggest a continuation of the brain's microstructural development through adolescence."
experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) an animal model of autoimmune demyelination, such as in multiple sclerosis (MS). (More? PubMed - Gold R, Linington C, Lassmann H.) Understanding pathogenesis and therapy of multiple sclerosis via animal models: 70 years of merits and culprits in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis research. Brain. 2006 Aug;129(Pt 8):1953-71.)
Nogo (= Reticulon 4, RTN4, Neurite Growth Inhibitor 220) one of several myelin-associated proteins with inhibitory effects for neuronal neurite outgrowth. Nogo exists as 3 splice transcript variants (NOGO-A, NOGO-B and NOGO-C) which are differentially expressed in the developing central nervous system. Also associated with autoimmune demyelination, shown in models of multiple sclerosis (MS) such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).
Nogo-A myelin-associated protein which can inhibit neurite outgrowth and prevent regeneration in the adult central nervous system. Secreted by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, but not by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. (More? OMIM - Reticulon 4)
Many of the links below are to external resources and require an internet connection.
Links: Earlier References | Journals | Online Textbooks | Search Textbooks | PubMed | Search PubMed | Books | Glossary
1999 and Earlier References: Neuralation | Notch Articles/Reviews | Sonic Hedgehog Articles/Reviews | Dorsal | Clinical | Folate |
Glia Content Listing
Developmental Brain Research Content Listing
Neural Development Welcome to Neural Development | Pubmed Central Volume 1 2006 | Pubmed Central Volume 2 2007 |
International Journal for Developmental Neuroscience Official Journal of the International Society for Developmental Neuroscience |
Developmental Neuroscience Journal Homepage | Hippocampal Development | Vol. 29, No. 3, 2007 |
Neuroscience Official journal of The International Brain Research Organisation (IBRO)
Developmental Biology (6th ed) Gilbert, Scott F. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, Inc.; c2000. Formation of the Neural Tube | Differentiation of the Neural Tube | Tissue Architecture of the Central Nervous System | Neuronal Types | Snapshot Summary: Central Nervous System and Epidermis
Neuroscience Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J.; Fitzpatrick, David; Katz, Lawrence C.; LaMantia, Anthony-Samuel; McNamara, James O.; Williams, S. Mark. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates, Inc. ; c2001 Early Brain Development | Construction of Neural Circuits | Modification of Brain Circuits as a Result of Experience
Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th Edn) Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter. New York: Garland Publishing; 2002. The three phases of neural development |
Search NLM Online Textbooks- "glial development" : Developmental Biology | Neuroscience | The Cell- A molecular Approach | Molecular Biology of the Cell | Endocrinology
Reviews
Fricker-Gates RA. Radial glia: a changing role in the central nervous system. Neuroreport. 2006 Jul 31;17(11):1081-4.
Rakic P. Elusive radial glial cells: historical and evolutionary perspective. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):19-32.
Marshall CA, Suzuki SO, Goldman JE. Gliogenic and neurogenic progenitors of the subventricular zone: who are they, where did they come from, and where are they going? Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):52-61.
Gressens P. Neuronal migration disorders. J Child Neurol. 2005 Dec;20(12):969-71.
Hevner RF. From radial glia to pyramidal-projection neuron: transcription factor cascades in cerebral cortex development. Mol Neurobiol. 2006 Feb;33(1):33-50.
Casanova MF, Trippe J 2nd. Regulatory mechanisms of cortical laminar development. Brain Res Rev. 2006 Jun;51(1):72-84.
Lin SC, Bergles DE. Synaptic signaling between neurons and glia. Glia. 2004 Aug 15;47(3):290-8.
Scemes E, Giaume C. Astrocyte calcium waves: what they are and what they do. Glia. 2006 Nov 15;54(7):716-25.
Baron W, Colognato H, ffrench-Constant C. Integrin-growth factor interactions as regulators of oligodendroglial development and function. Glia. 2005 Mar;49(4):467-79.
Bessis A, Bechade C, Bernard D, Roumier A. Microglial control of neuronal death and synaptic properties. Glia. 2007 Feb;55(3):233-8.
Kriegstein AR, Gotz M. Radial glia diversity: a matter of cell fate. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):37-43.
Nadarajah B. Radial glia and somal translocation of radial neurons in the developing cerebral cortex. Glia. 2003 Jul;43(1):33-6.
Articles
Goto M, Piper Hanley K, Marcos J, Wood PJ, Wright S, Postle AD, Cameron IT, Mason JI, Wilson DI, Hanley NA. In humans, early cortisol biosynthesis provides a mechanism to safeguard female sexual development. J Clin Invest. 2006 Apr;116(4):953-60.
Note: books are listed for educational and information purposes only and does not suggest a commercial product endorsement.
Molecular and Cellular Approaches to Neural Development
The Embryonic Human Brain: An Atlas Of Developmental Stages, 3rd Edition
Search PubMed
Search Mar2007 "gliogenesis" 346 reference articles of which 48 were reviews.
Search PubMed: term= gliogenesis | myelination | radial glia | abnormal glial development
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Notes currently under development (notice removed when complete).
Development of the neural system continues throughout our entire life, from the early trilaminar embryo, through embryonic, fetal, newborn, postnatally and continues to be remodelled at the synaptic level.
We form from a simple plate region of the ectoderm, then fold a simple neural tube, to differentiate into the complex structure of the spinal cord and brain.
Use this page to get an overview of the online resources available and notes to follow through early stages of development.
Note: Development the Neural Crest and Sensory Systems (hearing/vision/smell) are only briefly introduced in these current notes
Next look at the neural structure and distribution in the Carnegie stage 13 and then the stage 22 embryos.(use righthand menu Internal Links)
Then look at the later Week 10 embryo sagittal sections which show further development of the brain features and flexures.
Note that the edge of the neural plate forms the neural crest which contributes the cranial ganglia, peripheral sympathetic and parasympatheic nervous system as well as many non-neural tissues (this part of the nervous system is covered in Neural crest Notes).
Please email Dr Mark Hill if you wish to make a comment about this current project.